# Un commento giuridico citato secondo OSCOLA

> Un commento a sentenza di quattro pagine in cui le citazioni [@robinson2018, para 21] diventano note OSCOLA: casi in corsivo, citazioni neutre, ibid e (n 1).

- Versione HTML: https://postext.dev/it/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola
- Ricetta Nº 099 · Struttura del libro · Livello 2 (Intermedio) · Output: Canvas, PDF
- Generi: Articoli scientifici e testi accademici
- Richiede postext ≥ 1.25.0, postext-pdf ≥ 1.25.0 · provata con 1.31.0, postext-pdf 1.31.0 il 2026-10-13
- Pagine: [1](https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/p01.webp?v=8cf741b4), [2](https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/p02.webp?v=8cf741b4), [3](https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/p03.webp?v=8cf741b4), [4](https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/p04.webp?v=8cf741b4)
- PDF: https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/legal-opinion-oscola.pdf?v=8cf741b4
- Apri nella Sandbox: https://postext.dev/it/sandbox#recipe=legal-opinion-oscola&lang=en (.postext: https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/legal-opinion-oscola.postext)
- Ultimo aggiornamento: 2026-10-11
- Altre lingue: [en](https://postext.dev/en/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [es](https://postext.dev/es/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [ca](https://postext.dev/ca/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [de](https://postext.dev/de/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [fr](https://postext.dev/fr/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [pt](https://postext.dev/pt/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [zh](https://postext.dev/zh/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [ja](https://postext.dev/ja/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [ar](https://postext.dev/ar/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md)

## In breve

Un breve commento a una sentenza inglese sulla polizia. Ogni caso, legge e articolo su cui si basa è citato in una nota numerata a piè di pagina, nello stile che usano le facoltà di giurisprudenza britanniche.

## Che cosa comporrai

Un estratto della collana di commenti a sentenza di una rivista giuridica: quattro pagine su *Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police*, la decisione della Corte suprema del 2018 su quando la polizia ha un dovere di diligenza. La pagina misura 162 × 240 mm, con margini speculari, in Libre Baskerville a 9,4/13,6 pt, e la prima pagina si apre su una fascia bordeaux con il nome del caso composto in corsivo a 60 pt. L’autore scrive ogni fonte come una chiave con il suo pinpoint, `[@caparo1990, 617–18]`, e Postext compone 23 note a piè di pagina in OSCOLA, lo standard di citazione delle facoltà di giurisprudenza britanniche: nomi dei casi in corsivo, leggi in tondo, nessun punto dopo AC, HL o edn, *ibid* per la fonte della nota precedente e *Robinson (n 1) [55]* in seguito. Le fonti sono reali; l’autore e la rivista no.

**Questa ricetta risponde a:**

- Come cito casi e leggi in nota a piè di pagina, in stile OSCOLA?
- Come compongo le citazioni come note a piè di pagina, in stile Chicago, con forme brevi per le citazioni successive?

## La risposta breve

```js
// script.js, righe 50–68
// The text cites with [@robinson2018, para 21]; OSCOLA is a note style, so each citation
// becomes a footnote: the case in full the first time, "ibid" when the note before cites
// the same authority, "Robinson (n 1) [55]" after that. Case names come out italic,
// statutes roman, and no abbreviation takes a full stop (AC, HL, UKSC, edn, n, s).
registerCitationEngine(createCiteprocEngine({ styles: STYLES, locales: LOCALES }));
const citations = {
  style: 'custom', customStyle: OSCOLA, // the bundled 'oscola', patched above
  locale: 'en-GB', // OSCOLA's words stay English in the Spanish edition too
  notes: 'footnote',
  link: false, // a case comment has no bibliography to link to
  bibliography: { auto: false }, // OSCOLA articles cite in the notes only
};
// The citation notes share the numbering and the look of the author's own [^notes].
const footnotes = {
  placement: 'column', numbering: 'chapter',
  fontSize: pt(7.8), lineHeight: pt(10.2), spaceBetween: pt(2.2),
  textAlign: 'left', // ragged: long report citations would open wide gaps if justified
  separator: { width: 0.25, lineWidth: pt(0.5), color: col('rule') },
};
```

## Ingredienti

**Insegna**

- [Citazioni nelle note](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#citazioni-e-bibliografia): Uno stile a note (Chicago notes, OSCOLA, GB/T 7714 a note) compone ogni citazione come nota a piè di pagina, con forme abbreviate per le citazioni successive, o come nota su due righe dentro una riga cinese.
- [Citazioni in uno stile citazionale](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#citazioni-e-bibliografia): Opere citate come [@key, p. 33] e formattate in uno stile CSL (APA, Chicago, MLA, IEEE, Vancouver, ISO 690, GB/T 7714…) scelto nelle impostazioni, collegate alle loro voci.

**Usa anche**

- [Note a piè di pagina](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#note-a-piè-di-pagina)
- [Fascia di capitolo a tutta larghezza](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-text.md#estensione-e-progetto-grafico-avanzato)
- [Aperture progettate](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-text.md#estensione-e-progetto-grafico-avanzato)
- [Attributi dei titoli](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#attributi-dei-titoli)
- [Testatine e folio](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-page-layout.md#intestazioni-e-piè-di-pagina)
- [Margini speculari](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-page-layout.md#margini-speculari)
- [Stili di paragrafo](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-styles.md#stili-di-paragrafo)
- [Tavolozza di colori semantica](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-fonts-colors-viewers.md#tavolozza-dei-colori)
- [Esportazione in PDF](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-programmatic-usage.md#generare-pdf)
- [Bilanciamento delle colonne](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-text.md#bilanciamento-delle-colonne)
- [Rimandi](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#rimandi-e-ancore)
- [Bibliografia dai riferimenti](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#citazioni-e-bibliografia)
- [Colore della carta](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-page-layout.md#pagina)
- [Testatine secondo il ruolo della pagina](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-page-layout.md#elementi-di-testo)
- [Font incorporati nel PDF](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-programmatic-usage.md#perché-un-provider-di-font)

**La configurazione in breve**

- [`bodyText`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-text.md#testo-corrente), [`citations`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-notes-references.md#citazioni), [`colorPalette`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-fonts-colors-viewers.md#tavolozza-dei-colori), [`footer`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-page-layout.md#intestazioni-e-piè-di-pagina), `footnotes`, [`header`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-page-layout.md#intestazioni-e-piè-di-pagina), [`headings`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-text.md#titoli), [`layout`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-page-layout.md#impaginazione), [`locale`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-text.md#sillabazione), [`page`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-page-layout.md#pagina), [`paragraphStyles`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-styles.md#stili-di-paragrafo)

**API**

- [`LOCALES`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#citazioni-e-bibliografia), [`STYLES`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#citazioni-e-bibliografia), [`buildDocumentWithFonts`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-programmatic-usage.md#caricare-i-font-prima-dellimpaginazione), [`createCiteprocEngine`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#citazioni-e-bibliografia), [`decompressWoff2`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-programmatic-usage.md#provider-di-font-per-il-browser-fontsource--woff2), [`registerCitationEngine`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/document-format.md#citazioni-e-bibliografia), [`renderPageToCanvas`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-programmatic-usage.md#rendere-una-pagina-come-bitmap), [`renderToPdf`](https://postext.dev/it/docs/configuration-programmatic-usage.md#generare-pdf)

**Caratteri**

- Libre Baskerville (OFL-1.1), Libre Caslon Display (OFL-1.1), Libre Franklin (OFL-1.1)

## Preparazione

### 1 · Una nota OSCOLA per ogni fonte

Il codice è nella [risposta breve](https://postext.dev/it/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md#la-risposta-breve) qui sopra. OSCOLA è uno stile a note, quindi `[@robinson2018, para 21]` lascia un numero in apice dopo il punto e le sue parole vanno al piede della pagina. La nota 1 dà il caso per esteso, *Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police [2018] UKSC 4, [2018] AC 736*; la nota 2, che lo cita di nuovo subito dopo, dice *ibid [21]*; la nota 8, quando altri casi si sono messi in mezzo, dice *Robinson (n 1) [26–27]*. Un articolo di rivista giuridica cita solo nelle note, quindi `bibliography.auto: false` tiene l’elenco delle opere fuori dall’ultima pagina.

### 2 · Un caso è un dato, scritto come lo stampano le raccolte

Un caso è un elemento CSL di `type: legal_case`: il suo nome in `title`, la corte in `authority`, la serie della raccolta in `container-title` e la prima pagina in `page`. OSCOLA mette tra parentesi quadre l’anno di una raccolta quando l’anno identifica il volume, come per gli Appeal Cases, quindi la ricetta scrive quell’anno in `volume`, seguito dal numero del volume: `volume: "[1990] 2"` dà *[1990] 2 AC 605 (HL)*. Un caso deciso dopo il 2001 ha anche una citazione neutra: `authority: UKSC`, `number: "4"` e `issued: 2018` danno *[2018] UKSC 4*, seguita dalla raccolta. Una legge è `type: legislation` con l’anno nel titolo e senza `issued`, così l’anno non si stampa due volte, e `[@hra1998, § 6]` cita una sezione come *s 6*.

### 3 · Due correzioni allo stile incluso

```js
// script.js, righe 32–46
// The bundled oscola.csl writes a paragraph pinpoint in brackets only in a case's first
// note: a later note printed "Robinson (n 1) para 55" and "ibid 27", and a repeated
// statute "ibid 7". These two replacements give "Robinson (n 1) [55]", "ibid [27]" and
// "ibid s 7", as OSCOLA prints them.
const LOCATOR = `<macro name="label-locator"><choose>
  <if type="legal_case" locator="paragraph">
    <text variable="locator" prefix="[" suffix="]"/></if>
  <else-if locator="page"><text variable="locator"/></else-if>
  <else><group delimiter=" "><label form="short" strip-periods="true" variable="locator"/>
    <text variable="locator"/></group></else>
</choose></macro>`;
const OSCOLA = STYLES.oscola
  .replace(/<macro name="label-locator">[\s\S]*?<\/macro>/, LOCATOR)
  .replace(/(<if position="ibid-with-locator">[\s\S]*?)<text variable="locator"\/>/,
    '$1<text macro="label-locator"/>');
```

L’`oscola.csl` incluso mette tra parentesi quadre il pinpoint di un paragrafo solo nella prima nota di un caso. Le note successive stampavano *para 55* e *ibid 27*, e una seconda nota alla stessa legge perdeva la sua *s*. La correzione sostituisce una macro e una riga dell’XML dello stile prima della costruzione e passa il risultato come stile personalizzato, così il testo e i riferimenti non cambiano.

### 4 · Il nome del caso sulla fascia

```js
// script.js, righe 72–96
const BAND = 124; // mm from the trim's top
const big = (id, content, family, size, color, y, extra = {}) => ({
  kind: 'text', id, content, fontFamily: family, fontSize: pt(size), lineHeight: 1.08, color,
  align: 'left', overflow: 'wrap', ...extra,
  placement: { ...at('container', 'top-left', 0, y), size: { width: mm(118), height: 'auto' } },
});
const opener = {
  enabled: true,
  minHeight: mm(BAND - MARGIN.top + 8), // the text starts 8 mm under the band
  slot: { elements: [
    { kind: 'box', id: 'band', style: { backgroundColor: col('claret') },
      placement: { ...at('page', 'top-left'), size: { width: 'fill', height: mm(BAND) } } },
    big('kicker', '{attr.kicker}', LABEL, 7.4, col('tint'), 2,
      { fontWeight: 600, letterSpacing: pt(1.4), textTransform: 'uppercase' }),
    big('case', '{attr.case}', TEXT, 60, col('paper'), 9, { italic: true }),
    big('parties', '{attr.parties}', TEXT, 12.5, col('tint'), 33, { italic: true }),
    big('citation', '{attr.citation}', TEXT, 10.5, col('tint'), 40),
    { kind: 'box', id: 'hairline', style: { backgroundColor: col('tint') },
      placement: { ...at('container', 'top-left', 0, 51),
        size: { width: mm(30), height: pt(0.6) } } },
    big('title', '{titleText}', DISPLAY, 27, col('paper'), 57),
    big('byline', '{attr.byline}', LABEL, 8.5, col('tint'), 82,
      { fontWeight: 500, letterSpacing: pt(0.5) }),
  ] },
};
```

La fascia scende per 124 mm dal taglio. Il nome del caso, le parti e la citazione sono attributi del titolo, quindi un altro commento della collana cambia solo il suo Markdown. *Robinson* è composto in Libre Baskerville Italic a 60 pt perché OSCOLA mette in corsivo i nomi dei casi, e la citazione sotto resta in tondo, come nelle note.

```js
// script.js, righe 16–23
const palette = {
  ink: '#1f1b1a', claret: '#5e1b26', tint: '#ecdcd8', rule: '#bfb4ad', muted: '#6b625d',
  paper: '#fcfaf6',
};
// Each colour carries its hex and the palette entry it follows.
const col = (id) => ({ hex: palette[id], model: 'hex', paletteId: id });
const colorPalette = Object.entries({ ...palette, 'main-color': palette.claret })
  .map(([id, hex]) => ({ id, name: id, value: { hex, model: 'hex' } }));
```

## La ricetta completa

Un unico file, composto a partire dalla cartella della ricetta con il testo di esempio e il kit comune del Ricettario già inclusi; costruisce la propria pagina. Per eseguirlo, mettilo in uno `<script type="module">` di una pagina vuota, oppure incollalo nel pannello JS di un nuovo pen di CodePen (come modulo). Importa postext da esm.sh: non c’è niente da installare né da compilare.

- Cartella della ricetta: https://github.com/drnachio/postext/tree/main/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola

### script.js

```js
// ═══ Postext Cookbook · Nº 099 · A legal opinion cited in OSCOLA ══════════════════
// https://postext.dev/en/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola
// Code: MIT · Text: original (CC BY 4.0) · Pictures: none
// Fonts: Libre Baskerville, Libre Caslon Display, Libre Franklin (OFL 1.1) · Needs postext ≥ 1.25.0
import {
  buildDocumentWithFonts, renderPageToCanvas, registerCitationEngine,
} from 'https://esm.sh/postext';
import { renderToPdf, decompressWoff2 } from 'https://esm.sh/postext-pdf';
import { createCiteprocEngine, STYLES, LOCALES } from 'https://esm.sh/postext-citeproc';

const LANG = 'en'; // @lang: the language of the sample document ('en' | 'es')
const RECIPE = 'legal-opinion-oscola';

// ─── 1 · Design ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
// #region palette: a law-report claret for the band, ink and cream paper for the rest
const palette = {
  ink: '#1f1b1a', claret: '#5e1b26', tint: '#ecdcd8', rule: '#bfb4ad', muted: '#6b625d',
  paper: '#fcfaf6',
};
// Each colour carries its hex and the palette entry it follows.
const col = (id) => ({ hex: palette[id], model: 'hex', paletteId: id });
const colorPalette = Object.entries({ ...palette, 'main-color': palette.claret })
  .map(([id, hex]) => ({ id, name: id, value: { hex, model: 'hex' } }));
// #endregion
const TEXT = 'Libre Baskerville', DISPLAY = 'Libre Caslon Display', LABEL = 'Libre Franklin';
const TRIM = { width: 162, height: 240 }; // a law-journal offprint
const MARGIN = { top: 23, bottom: 22, inner: 19, outer: 21 };
const LEAD = 13.6; // pt
const at = (to, edge, x = 0, y = 0) => ({ anchor: { to, edge }, offset: { x: mm(x), y: mm(y) } });

// #region oscola: two patches to the bundled OSCOLA style, applied before the build
// The bundled oscola.csl writes a paragraph pinpoint in brackets only in a case's first
// note: a later note printed "Robinson (n 1) para 55" and "ibid 27", and a repeated
// statute "ibid 7". These two replacements give "Robinson (n 1) [55]", "ibid [27]" and
// "ibid s 7", as OSCOLA prints them.
const LOCATOR = `<macro name="label-locator"><choose>
  <if type="legal_case" locator="paragraph">
    <text variable="locator" prefix="[" suffix="]"/></if>
  <else-if locator="page"><text variable="locator"/></else-if>
  <else><group delimiter=" "><label form="short" strip-periods="true" variable="locator"/>
    <text variable="locator"/></group></else>
</choose></macro>`;
const OSCOLA = STYLES.oscola
  .replace(/<macro name="label-locator">[\s\S]*?<\/macro>/, LOCATOR)
  .replace(/(<if position="ibid-with-locator">[\s\S]*?)<text variable="locator"\/>/,
    '$1<text macro="label-locator"/>');
// #endregion

// #region answer: OSCOLA footnotes for cases, statutes and articles
// The text cites with [@robinson2018, para 21]; OSCOLA is a note style, so each citation
// becomes a footnote: the case in full the first time, "ibid" when the note before cites
// the same authority, "Robinson (n 1) [55]" after that. Case names come out italic,
// statutes roman, and no abbreviation takes a full stop (AC, HL, UKSC, edn, n, s).
registerCitationEngine(createCiteprocEngine({ styles: STYLES, locales: LOCALES }));
const citations = {
  style: 'custom', customStyle: OSCOLA, // the bundled 'oscola', patched above
  locale: 'en-GB', // OSCOLA's words stay English in the Spanish edition too
  notes: 'footnote',
  link: false, // a case comment has no bibliography to link to
  bibliography: { auto: false }, // OSCOLA articles cite in the notes only
};
// The citation notes share the numbering and the look of the author's own [^notes].
const footnotes = {
  placement: 'column', numbering: 'chapter',
  fontSize: pt(7.8), lineHeight: pt(10.2), spaceBetween: pt(2.2),
  textAlign: 'left', // ragged: long report citations would open wide gaps if justified
  separator: { width: 0.25, lineWidth: pt(0.5), color: col('rule') },
};
// #endregion

// #region opener: the claret band holds the case name, its citation and the title
const BAND = 124; // mm from the trim's top
const big = (id, content, family, size, color, y, extra = {}) => ({
  kind: 'text', id, content, fontFamily: family, fontSize: pt(size), lineHeight: 1.08, color,
  align: 'left', overflow: 'wrap', ...extra,
  placement: { ...at('container', 'top-left', 0, y), size: { width: mm(118), height: 'auto' } },
});
const opener = {
  enabled: true,
  minHeight: mm(BAND - MARGIN.top + 8), // the text starts 8 mm under the band
  slot: { elements: [
    { kind: 'box', id: 'band', style: { backgroundColor: col('claret') },
      placement: { ...at('page', 'top-left'), size: { width: 'fill', height: mm(BAND) } } },
    big('kicker', '{attr.kicker}', LABEL, 7.4, col('tint'), 2,
      { fontWeight: 600, letterSpacing: pt(1.4), textTransform: 'uppercase' }),
    big('case', '{attr.case}', TEXT, 60, col('paper'), 9, { italic: true }),
    big('parties', '{attr.parties}', TEXT, 12.5, col('tint'), 33, { italic: true }),
    big('citation', '{attr.citation}', TEXT, 10.5, col('tint'), 40),
    { kind: 'box', id: 'hairline', style: { backgroundColor: col('tint') },
      placement: { ...at('container', 'top-left', 0, 51),
        size: { width: mm(30), height: pt(0.6) } } },
    big('title', '{titleText}', DISPLAY, 27, col('paper'), 57),
    big('byline', '{attr.byline}', LABEL, 8.5, col('tint'), 82,
      { fontWeight: 500, letterSpacing: pt(0.5) }),
  ] },
};
// #endregion

const head = (id, content, parity, edge, x, align) => ({
  kind: 'text', id, content, parity, pages: 'body', fontFamily: LABEL, fontWeight: 500,
  fontSize: pt(7.2), letterSpacing: pt(1), textTransform: 'uppercase', color: col('muted'),
  align, placement: at('page', edge, x, 13),
});
const journal = t({ en: 'Notes on Obligations', es: 'Cuadernos de Obligaciones' });

const config = () => ({
  locale: t({ en: 'en-us', es: 'es' }), // picks the hyphenation patterns
  colorPalette,
  citations,
  footnotes,
  page: {
    sizePreset: 'custom', width: mm(TRIM.width), height: mm(TRIM.height), dpi: 150,
    backgroundColor: col('paper'),
    margins: { top: mm(MARGIN.top), bottom: mm(MARGIN.bottom), left: mm(MARGIN.inner),
      right: mm(MARGIN.outer), mirror: true },
  },
  layout: { layoutType: 'single' },
  bodyText: {
    fontFamily: TEXT, fontSize: pt(9.4), lineHeight: pt(LEAD), color: col('ink'),
    boldColor: col('ink'), italicColor: col('ink'), referenceColor: col('ink'),
    textAlign: 'justify', firstLineIndent: mm(4.5), indentAfterHeading: false,
    hyphenation: { enabled: true }, optimalLineBreaking: true,
    avoidWidows: true, avoidOrphans: true, avoidRunts: true,
  },
  headings: {
    fontFamily: TEXT, fontWeight: 400, color: col('ink'),
    // A page that ends short gives each heading two lines, tries the other levers, and
    // then lets a heading take up to four. With one heading on the page and nothing else
    // to stretch, that is a hole; two lines are the most here, and the rest of a short
    // page stays over the notes.
    balancing: { maxLinesPerHeading: 2 },
    levels: [
      // A new page on either side: the default would wait for a recto.
      { level: 1, fontSize: pt(27), breakBefore: { enabled: true, parity: 'any' },
        advancedDesign: opener },
      { level: 2, italic: true, fontSize: pt(12), color: col('claret'),
        lineHeight: pt(LEAD), marginTop: pt(LEAD), marginBottom: pt(LEAD / 2) },
    ],
  },
  paragraphStyles: [
    { id: 'colophon', fontFamily: LABEL, fontSize: pt(6.8), lineHeight: pt(9.2),
      color: col('muted'), textAlign: 'left', firstLineIndent: pt(0), marginTop: pt(LEAD) },
  ],
  header: { elements: [
    head('verso-folio', '{pageNumber}', 'even', 'top-left', MARGIN.outer, 'left'),
    head('verso-journal', journal, 'even', 'top-left', MARGIN.outer + 8, 'left'),
    head('recto-title', '{title}', 'odd', 'top-right', -(MARGIN.outer + 8), 'right'),
    head('recto-folio', '{pageNumber}', 'odd', 'top-right', -MARGIN.outer, 'right'),
  ] },
  footer: { elements: [ // a drop folio on the opener page only
    { kind: 'text', id: 'drop-folio', content: '{pageNumber}', pages: 'opener',
      fontFamily: LABEL, fontWeight: 500, fontSize: pt(7.2), color: col('muted'),
      align: 'center', placement: at('page', 'bottom', 0, -11) },
  ] },
});

// ─── 2 · Content ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
const markdown = String.raw`---
title: "Acts, Omissions and the Police"
author: "Harriet Okafor"
---

# Acts, Omissions and the Police {#comment kicker="Notes on Obligations · Case Comment" case="Robinson" parties="v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police" citation="[2018] UKSC 4, [2018] AC 736" byline="Harriet Okafor"}

On a July afternoon in 2008 two detectives tried to arrest a man suspected of dealing drugs on a shopping street in the centre of Huddersfield. He resisted, and the three men fell against Mrs Robinson, a woman of 76 who was walking past, and knocked her to the ground. The trial judge found that the officers had been careless in attempting the arrest where and when they did, but held that the police owed no duty of care to a passer-by hurt in the course of their work against crime. The Court of Appeal agreed. The Supreme Court did not.[@robinson2018]

Lord Reed, with whom Lady Hale and Lord Hodge agreed, began by correcting a reading of the law that had gone uncorrected for almost thirty years.[@robinson2018, para 21] This comment argues that the case matters less for what it decided about the police than for the method it restored. A court asked whether a duty of care exists should look first for an established category and reason from it by analogy; it should weigh questions of policy only when the case is new.

## There is no “Caparo test”

The modern law begins with Lord Atkin’s statement that a person must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which he can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure his neighbour.[@donoghue1932, 580] In the 1970s the House of Lords tried to turn that statement into a general formula. Lord Wilberforce proposed two stages: a relationship of proximity in which harm was foreseeable, and then any considerations that ought to negative or limit the duty.[@anns1978, 751–52] The formula expanded liability faster than the courts could defend, and *Anns* was overruled in 1990.[@murphy1991]

In the same year Lord Bridge described the ingredients of a duty as foreseeability of damage, a relationship of proximity, and a situation in which the court considers it fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty.[@caparo1990, 617–18] Many judges went on to apply it as a three-stage test to every claim, including claims for physical injury caused by a positive act. Lord Bridge had said the opposite. He doubted that any single test could settle every case and preferred that the law develop novel categories incrementally.[^brennan]

[^brennan]: Lord Bridge adopted the words of Brennan J in the High Court of Australia; see [@caparo1990, 618; @sutherland1985, 481]

*Robinson* restores that reading. Where a case falls within an established category, the court applies the law as settled; the question of what is fair, just and reasonable arises only where the court is asked to go further.[@robinson2018, para 26–27] Physical injury caused by a careless positive act has been an established category since *Donoghue*. The officers’ decision to make the arrest in a crowded street was such an act, the risk to people nearby was foreseeable, and nothing more was needed to found a duty.[@robinson2018, para 74]

## Acts and omissions

The common law does not, in general, impose a duty to protect another from harm caused by a third party or by nature.[@smith1987, 271] Lord Hoffmann gave the reason in political terms: it is less of an invasion of a person’s freedom to require him to take care when he chooses to act than to require him to act at all, and a duty to rescue invites the question why it should fall on one bystander rather than another.[@stovin1996, 943–44] The rule has exceptions: where the defendant has assumed responsibility, controls the source of the danger, or has created it.

Read in this light, the earlier police cases were cases about omissions. In *Hill* the mother of the last victim of Peter Sutcliffe sued the force that had failed to catch him. The House of Lords held that no duty was owed to her daughter, who was one of an indeterminate public, and added reasons of policy about the effect of liability on police work.[@hill1989, 63] For thirty years *Hill* was cited as if it gave the police a general immunity. Lord Reed treated the policy reasons as a supplement to the ordinary rule: the police, like anyone else, owe no duty to prevent harm by a third party, unless one of the exceptions applies; but they owe the ordinary duty not to injure people by what they themselves do.[@robinson2018, para 55]

The distinction had already decided *Michael*, where a call to the emergency services was wrongly graded and the caller was killed before officers arrived. The majority held that the police had assumed no responsibility for her safety and so owed her no duty in negligence.[@michael2015, para 97–100] Academic opinion had divided on the point. One view holds that a public body set up to protect people should bear a narrow duty where it knows of a specific threat to a specific person;[^peripheral] the other, that the omissions rule applies to public authorities as it applies to private persons, and that any wider duty is for Parliament.[@nolan2011]

[^peripheral]: [@tofaris2016, 130–32; cf @stapleton1995, 304–06, on the deterrent value of claims against parties who are not the primary wrongdoer]

## The statutory route

Section 6(1) of the Human Rights Act 1998 makes it unlawful for a public authority to act in a way that is incompatible with a Convention right,[@hra1998, § 6] and a victim may bring proceedings against it under section 7.[@hra1998, § 7] In *Michael* the claim under article 2 of the Convention was allowed to go to trial even though the claim in negligence failed.[@michael2015, para 139] In *DSD* the Supreme Court held the police liable under article 3 for serious failures in investigating a series of sexual assaults by a taxi driver.[@dsd2018, para 24]

The concern behind *Hill*, that liability would push the police into defensive practices, has a statutory answer of its own. When a court decides what steps a defendant should have taken to meet the standard of care, it may consider whether requiring those steps might prevent a desirable activity from being undertaken.[@compensation2006, § 1] That is a question of breach, not of duty. The officers in *Robinson* were not expected to stop arresting suspects, only to choose the moment with some regard for the people on the pavement.

## Comment

A year later the Supreme Court applied the same method to a local authority that had failed to rehouse a family harassed by their neighbours, and found no duty, because the council had neither created the danger nor assumed responsibility for the children’s safety.[@poole2019, para 64–65] The two decisions point in different directions on their facts and rest on the same reasoning.

Two difficulties remain. The line between acts and omissions is easy to state and hard to draw: an officer who opens a door and lets a violent man in has acted, but one who fails to lock it has not, and the difference may be small to the person on the other side. And the exceptions do much of the work. An assumption of responsibility can be found in a promise, a practice or the nature of a service, and the cases since *Robinson* show that the courts have not agreed how readily to find one.[^generally] The case does not resolve either difficulty; it puts them where they belong, in the analysis of established categories, and not in an open question about what is fair.

[^generally]: For the exceptions and the cases on each, see generally [@winfield2020]

:::paragraphs{style="colophon"}
Written for the Postext Cookbook (CC BY 4.0). Author and series are fictional; this is not legal advice. The authorities are real; some pinpoints are illustrative. Set in Libre Baskerville, Libre Caslon Display and Libre Franklin (SIL OFL).
:::

:::references{format=csl-yaml}
- id: donoghue1932
  type: legal_case
  title: Donoghue v Stevenson
  title-short: Donoghue
  volume: "[1932]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "562"
  authority: HL
- id: anns1978
  type: legal_case
  title: Anns v Merton London Borough Council
  title-short: Anns
  volume: "[1978]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "728"
  authority: HL
- id: murphy1991
  type: legal_case
  title: Murphy v Brentwood District Council
  title-short: Murphy
  volume: "[1991] 1"
  container-title: AC
  page: "398"
  authority: HL
- id: caparo1990
  type: legal_case
  title: Caparo Industries plc v Dickman
  title-short: Caparo
  volume: "[1990] 2"
  container-title: AC
  page: "605"
  authority: HL
- id: sutherland1985
  type: legal_case
  title: Sutherland Shire Council v Heyman
  title-short: Sutherland
  volume: "157"
  container-title: CLR
  page: "424"
  authority: HCA
  issued: 1985
- id: smith1987
  type: legal_case
  title: Smith v Littlewoods Organisation Ltd
  title-short: Smith
  volume: "[1987]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "241"
  authority: HL
- id: stovin1996
  type: legal_case
  title: Stovin v Wise
  title-short: Stovin
  volume: "[1996]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "923"
  authority: HL
- id: hill1989
  type: legal_case
  title: Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire
  title-short: Hill
  volume: "[1989]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "53"
  authority: HL
- id: michael2015
  type: legal_case
  title: Michael v Chief Constable of South Wales Police
  title-short: Michael
  authority: UKSC
  number: "2"
  issued: 2015
  volume: "[2015]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "1732"
- id: robinson2018
  type: legal_case
  title: Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police
  title-short: Robinson
  authority: UKSC
  number: "4"
  issued: 2018
  volume: "[2018]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "736"
- id: dsd2018
  type: legal_case
  title: Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis v DSD
  title-short: DSD
  authority: UKSC
  number: "11"
  issued: 2018
  volume: "[2019]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "196"
- id: poole2019
  type: legal_case
  title: N v Poole Borough Council
  title-short: Poole
  authority: UKSC
  number: "25"
  issued: 2019
  volume: "[2020]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "780"
- id: hra1998
  type: legislation
  title: Human Rights Act 1998
- id: compensation2006
  type: legislation
  title: Compensation Act 2006
- id: stapleton1995
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Stapleton, given: Jane}]
  title: "Duty of Care: Peripheral Parties and Alternative Opportunities for Deterrence"
  container-title: LQR
  volume: "111"
  page: "301"
  issued: 1995
- id: nolan2011
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Nolan, given: Donal}]
  title: The Liability of Public Authorities for Failing to Confer Benefits
  container-title: LQR
  volume: "127"
  page: "260"
  issued: 2011
- id: tofaris2016
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Tofaris, given: Stelios}, {family: Steel, given: Sandy}]
  title: Negligence Liability for Omissions and the Police
  container-title: CLJ
  volume: "75"
  page: "128"
  issued: 2016
- id: winfield2020
  type: book
  author: [{family: Goudkamp, given: James}, {family: Nolan, given: Donal}]
  title: Winfield and Jolowicz on Tort
  edition: 20
  publisher: Sweet & Maxwell
  issued: 2020
:::
`;

// ─── 3 · Fonts ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
// Every face the design uses.
const FONTS = {
  'Libre Baskerville': ['400', '400i', '700'],
  'Libre Caslon Display': ['400'],
  'Libre Franklin': ['400', '500', '600'],
};

// ─── 4 · Build & show ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
const doc = await buildDocumentWithFonts({ markdown }, config(), kitFonts(FONTS));
const title = t({ en: 'A legal opinion cited in OSCOLA',
  es: 'Un dictamen jurídico citado en OSCOLA' });
showPages(doc, { title });
offerPdf(() => renderToPdf(doc, { fontProvider: fontsourceProvider }), `${RECIPE}.pdf`);

// ─── Kit ── helpers shared by every Cookbook recipe · postext.dev/cookbook ─────

// ─── Kit · core v1 ── the same in every recipe · postext.dev/cookbook
function mm(value) { return { value, unit: 'mm' }; }
function pt(value) { return { value, unit: 'pt' }; }
function em(value) { return { value, unit: 'em' }; }
/** The sample language's string: t({ en: 'Figure', es: 'Figura' }). */
function t(strings) { return strings[LANG] ?? Object.values(strings)[0]; }
/** A file in this recipe's assets folder, served from the Postext repo by jsDelivr. */
function asset(file) { return `https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/drnachio/postext@main/cookbook/${RECIPE}/assets/${file}`; }

// ─── Kit · fonts v3 ── the same in every recipe · postext.dev/cookbook
// Postext loads the faces a config asks for before layout (prepareFonts,
// buildDocumentWithFonts) and asks the kit for the files: Fontsource's, the
// files the PDF embeds too.

/** The options of buildDocumentWithFonts / prepareFonts / withLoadedFonts:
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function kitFonts(FONTS = {}) {
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/** A face's Fontsource files, in a fixed order: latin, then latin-ext and greek
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async function fontsourceResolver(family, weight, style, { text = '' } = {}) {
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  kitStatus('Loading fonts…');
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    unicodeRange: kitRanges()[subset],
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}

/** The unicode-range of each Fontsource file the kit loads (a function: the
 *  kit is inlined after the pen's code, which runs before a const would be set). */
function kitRanges() {
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      + 'U+1D00-1DBF,U+1E00-1E9F,U+1EF2-1EFF,U+2020,U+20A0-20AB,U+20AD-20C0,U+2113,U+2C60-2C7F,U+A720-A7FF',
    greek: 'U+0370-03FF',
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}

/** For the cjk, arabic and comics blocks, which add their own files: the
 *  faces of `faces` = { 'Family Name': ['400', '400i', '700'] }. `text` is the sample:
 *  č ł † α χ also load latin-ext and greek files (kitSubsetsFor). With
 *  `optional`, a face Fontsource does not ship is skipped instead of failing.
 *  The files are added once all have loaded, in the order asked (latin, then
 *  latin-ext, then greek), whatever order they arrive in: the last one added
 *  wins a character two files hold. Resolves to the number of faces added. */
async function loadFonts(faces, text = '', { optional = false } = {}) {
  kitStatus('Loading fonts…');
  const ranges = kitRanges();
  const jobs = [];
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      .filter(([weight, style]) => !hasFace(family, weight, style)); // before any await
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    const subsets = ['latin', ...kitSubsetsFor(text, meta)];
    for (const [weight, style] of todo) {
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      for (const subset of subsets) {
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  }
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}

/** A loaded FontFace covers this family, weight and style (fonts.check() would
 *  also say yes for families nobody declared). */
function hasFace(family, weight, style) {
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    if (face.status !== 'loaded' || face.style !== style) continue;
    if (face.family.replace(/^["']|["']$/g, '') !== family) continue;
    const [low, high = low] = face.weight.split(' ').map(Number);
    if (weight >= low && weight <= high) return true;
  }
  return false;
}

/** The files beyond latin `text` needs that `meta`'s family ships. */
function kitSubsetsFor(text, meta) {
  return [[/[Ā-˿ᴀ-ᶿḀ-ỿ†ℓⱠ-Ɀ꜠-ꟿ]/u, 'latin-ext'], [/[Ͱ-Ͽ]/u, 'greek']]
    .filter(([re, x]) => re.test(text) && meta?.subsets?.includes(x)).map(([, x]) => x);
}

/** Fontsource's id for a family: 'Source Serif 4' → 'source-serif-4'. */
function fontsourceId(family) { return family.toLowerCase().replace(/\s+/g, '-'); }

/** A package's folder at the one version @5 names now (#766). */
function fontsourceAt(id, u = `https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/@fontsource/${id}@`) {
  return (fontsourceAt.c ??= {})[id] ??= fetch(u + '5/package.json').then((r) => r.json())
    .then((p) => p.version || 5, () => 5).then((v) => `${u}${v}/`);
}

/** The family's Fontsource metadata (weights, styles, subsets), or null. */
function fontsourceMeta(family) {
  fontsourceMeta.cache ??= new Map();
  const id = fontsourceId(family);
  if (!fontsourceMeta.cache.has(id)) {
    fontsourceMeta.cache.set(id, fetch(`https://api.fontsource.org/v1/fonts/${id}`)
      .then((res) => (res.ok ? res.json() : null), () => null));
  }
  return fontsourceMeta.cache.get(id);
}

// ─── Kit · viewer v2 ── the same in every recipe · postext.dev/cookbook
/** The pages as spreads on a dark desk, page 1 alone, then verso | recto,
 *  each painted when it scrolls near. Other options go to renderPageToCanvas. */
function showPages(docs, { title, width = 460, ...render } = {}) {
  const root = viewer(title);
  const pages = [docs].flat().flatMap((doc) =>
    doc.pages.map((page) => ({ doc, page, n: (doc.pageIndexOffset ?? 0) + page.index })));
  const spreads = [];
  let verso = null;
  for (const p of pages) {
    if (p.n % 2 === 1) { if (verso) spreads.push([verso, null]); verso = p; }
    else { spreads.push([verso, p]); verso = null; }
  }
  if (verso) spreads.push([verso, null]);
  const density = Math.min(window.devicePixelRatio || 1, 2);
  showPages.painter?.disconnect();
  const painter = new IntersectionObserver((entries) => {
    for (const { isIntersecting, target } of entries) {
      if (!isIntersecting) continue;
      painter.unobserve(target);
      const { doc, page } = target.postext;
      renderPageToCanvas(page, doc, target, { ...render, scale: (width * density) / page.width });
    }
  }, { rootMargin: '800px' });
  showPages.painter = painter;
  root.replaceChildren(...spreads.map((pair) => {
    const spread = document.createElement('div');
    spread.className = 'pt-spread';
    for (const p of pair) {
      const figure = document.createElement('figure');
      if (p) {
        const label = p.page.pageLabel || String(p.n + 1);
        const canvas = document.createElement('canvas');
        canvas.postext = p;
        canvas.style.aspectRatio = `${p.page.width} / ${p.page.height}`;
        canvas.setAttribute('role', 'img');
        canvas.setAttribute('aria-label', `Page ${label}`);
        const folio = document.createElement('figcaption');
        folio.textContent = label;
        figure.append(canvas, folio);
        painter.observe(canvas);
      } else figure.className = 'pt-blank';
      spread.append(figure);
    }
    return spread;
  }));
  kitStatus(`${pages.length} ${pages.length === 1 ? 'page' : 'pages'}`);
  document.documentElement.dataset.postext = 'ready';
  return pages.length;
}

/** The desk, the bar and the error reporting, created once. */
function viewer(title) {
  if (!document.getElementById('pt-kit')) {
    document.head.insertAdjacentHTML('beforeend', `<style id="pt-kit">
      :root { color-scheme: dark; }
      body { margin: 0; background: #0e1014; color: #b9bcc4; font: 13px/1.45 system-ui, sans-serif; }
      #pt-bar { position: sticky; top: 0; z-index: 1; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; align-items: center;
        gap: 6px 16px; padding: 10px 16px; background: rgb(14 16 20 / .92); backdrop-filter: blur(6px);
        border-bottom: 1px solid #23262d; }
      #pt-bar strong { color: #f4f1ea; font-weight: 600; }
      #pt-actions { display: flex; gap: 12px; margin-left: auto; }
      #pt-actions a, #pt-actions button { color: #d8a21a; font: inherit; background: none; border: 0; padding: 0; cursor: pointer; }
      #pages { display: grid; justify-items: center; gap: 48px; padding: 32px 16px 72px; }
      .pt-spread { display: flex; }
      .pt-spread figure { margin: 0; width: min(460px, 44vw); }
      .pt-spread canvas { display: block; width: 100%; background: #fff;
        box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgb(0 0 0 / .5), 0 22px 44px -16px rgb(0 0 0 / .8); }
      .pt-spread figure:first-child canvas { box-shadow: inset -14px 0 14px -14px rgb(0 0 0 / .18), 0 1px 2px rgb(0 0 0 / .5), 0 22px 44px -16px rgb(0 0 0 / .8); }
      .pt-spread figcaption { margin-top: 10px; text-align: center; font: 600 10px/1 system-ui, sans-serif;
        letter-spacing: .18em; text-transform: uppercase; color: #6c7079; }
      .pt-blank { visibility: hidden; }
      @media (max-width: 760px) {
        .pt-spread { flex-direction: column; gap: 32px; }
        .pt-spread figure { width: min(460px, 92vw); }
        .pt-blank { display: none; }
      }
    </style>`);
    document.body.insertAdjacentHTML('afterbegin',
      '<header id="pt-bar"><strong id="pt-title"></strong><span id="pt-status" role="status"></span><span id="pt-actions"></span></header>');
    document.getElementById('pt-title').textContent = document.title || 'Postext';
    addEventListener('error', (event) => kitFail(event.error ?? event.message));
    addEventListener('unhandledrejection', (event) => kitFail(event.reason));
  }
  if (title) document.getElementById('pt-title').textContent = title;
  return document.getElementById('pages')
    ?? document.body.appendChild(Object.assign(document.createElement('main'), { id: 'pages' }));
}

function kitStatus(text) {
  viewer();
  document.getElementById('pt-status').textContent = text;
}

function kitFail(error) {
  document.documentElement.dataset.postext = 'error';
  kitStatus(`Error: ${error?.message ?? error}`);
}

// ─── Kit · pdf v3 ── the same in every recipe that exports a PDF
/** The Fontsource files the screen used, as TrueType, with their range and
 *  place: the nearest weight the family ships, upright with no italic;
 *  latin, then what its letters need (kitSubsetsFor). */
async function fontsourceProvider(family, weight, style, request) {
  const id = fontsourceId(family);
  const meta = await fontsourceMeta(family);
  const weights = meta?.weights?.length ? meta.weights : [400, 700];
  const w = weights.reduce((a, b) => (Math.abs(b - weight) < Math.abs(a - weight) ? b : a));
  const s = style === 'italic' && meta && !meta.styles.includes('italic') ? 'normal' : style;
  const text = String.fromCodePoint(...(request?.codePoints ?? []));
  const files = await Promise.all(['latin', ...kitSubsetsFor(text, meta)].map(async (subset, order) => {
    const res = await fetch(`${await fontsourceAt(id)}files/${id}-${subset}-${w}-${s}.woff2`);
    if (!res.ok) throw new Error(`Fontsource has no ${family} ${w} ${s} ${subset}`);
    return Object.assign(await decompressWoff2(new Uint8Array(await res.arrayBuffer())),
      { unicodeRange: kitRanges()[subset], order });
  }));
  return files.length === 1 ? files[0] : files;
}

/** A "Build the PDF" button; then "Open the PDF" (a new tab: CodePen's frame
 *  shows no PDFs) and a download link. */
function offerPdf(makePdf, filename) {
  viewer();
  const button = Object.assign(document.createElement('button'), { type: 'button', textContent: 'Build the PDF' });
  button.dataset.postextPdf = filename;
  button.addEventListener('click', async () => {
    button.disabled = true;
    button.textContent = 'Building the PDF…';
    try {
      const bytes = await makePdf();
      const url = URL.createObjectURL(new Blob([bytes], { type: 'application/pdf' }));
      const size = `${Math.max(1, Math.round(bytes.length / 1024))} KB`;
      button.replaceWith(
        Object.assign(document.createElement('a'), { href: url, target: '_blank', rel: 'noopener', textContent: 'Open the PDF ↗' }),
        Object.assign(document.createElement('a'), { href: url, download: filename, textContent: `Download ${filename} · ${size}` }));
    } catch (error) {
      button.disabled = false;
      button.textContent = 'Build the PDF';
      kitFail(error);
    }
  });
  document.getElementById('pt-actions').append(button);
}

// ─── /Kit ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
```

## Varianti

### Stampa lo stile così come viene distribuito

Per confrontare con l’output non corretto, usa l’id incluso. I pinpoint di paragrafo nelle note successive diventano allora *para 55*.

```diff
-  style: 'custom', customStyle: OSCOLA, // the bundled 'oscola', patched above
+  style: 'oscola',
```

### Raccogli le note alla fine

Alcune riviste stampano le note dopo il testo. Le citazioni conservano le forme estesa e breve e i loro numeri.

```diff
-  placement: 'column', numbering: 'chapter',
+  placement: 'chapterEnd', numbering: 'chapter',
```

## Errori frequenti

- Una raccolta il cui volume è un numero semplice, `volume: "2"`, stampa l’anno tra parentesi tonde, *(1990) 2 AC*, che OSCOLA riserva alle serie numerate attraverso gli anni come i Commonwealth Law Reports (nota 7). Scrivi l’anno tra parentesi quadre in `volume` per gli Appeal Cases e i Weekly Law Reports.
- `s` prima di un locatore indica una pagina (il tedesco *Seite*), non una sezione: scrivi `§ 6`. Una sottosezione come `6(1)` non viene letta come locatore; nominala nella frase e cita la sezione.
- OSCOLA non prevede una bibliografia in un articolo, e lo stile non ha tavole separate dei casi e delle leggi. Una tesi che ha bisogno di quelle tavole ottiene un solo elenco ordinato da `:::bibliography`, con prima le fonti secondarie e poi casi e leggi mescolati.

## Crediti

- Ricetta: Ignacio Ferro ([@drnachio](https://github.com/drnachio))
- Caratteri: Libre Baskerville (OFL-1.1), Libre Caslon Display (OFL-1.1), Libre Franklin (OFL-1.1)
- Codice: MIT · Contenuto di esempio: CC-BY-4.0

## Ricette correlate

- [Nº 089 · Un saggio di storia con note Chicago](https://postext.dev/it/cookbook/history-essay-chicago-notes.md): Un saggio di storia di quattro pagine le cui citazioni [@key, 87] diventano note Chicago a piè di pagina: complete la prima volta, brevi poi, con bibliografia. · Livello 2 (Intermedio) · Articoli scientifici e testi accademici
- [Nº 096 · Un saggio umanistico con bibliografia MLA](https://postext.dev/it/cookbook/mla-humanities-essay.md): Un saggio letterario le cui citazioni [@key, 48] diventano riferimenti autore-pagina MLA 9, con una citazione in blocco e una lista Works Cited da dati BibTeX. · Livello 2 (Intermedio) · Articoli scientifici e testi accademici
- [Nº 095 · Un articolo medico in stile Vancouver](https://postext.dev/it/cookbook/medical-article-vancouver.md): Il resoconto di uno studio clinico su A4 in due colonne: numeri di citazione in apice, bibliografia numerata Vancouver e DOI che nel PDF si aprono come link. · Livello 2 (Intermedio) · Articoli scientifici e testi accademici