# OSCOLAで引用する判例評釈

> 4ページの判例評釈。[@robinson2018, para 21]形式の引用がOSCOLAの脚注になります。判例名はイタリック、ニュートラル・サイテーション、ibid、(n 1)の相互参照。

- HTML版: https://postext.dev/ja/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola
- レシピ No. 099 · 本の構成 · 難易度 2 (中級) · 出力: Canvas, PDF
- ジャンル: 論文・学術書
- 必要なもの postext ≥ 1.12.1, postext-pdf ≥ 1.12.1 · テスト環境 1.12.1, postext-pdf 1.12.1 ／テスト日 2026-10-01
- ページ: [1](https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/p01.webp?v=04eafcbc), [2](https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/p02.webp?v=04eafcbc), [3](https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/p03.webp?v=04eafcbc), [4](https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/p04.webp?v=04eafcbc)
- PDF: https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/legal-opinion-oscola.pdf?v=04eafcbc
- Sandboxで開く: https://postext.dev/ja/sandbox#recipe=legal-opinion-oscola&lang=en (.postext: https://postext.dev/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola/en/legal-opinion-oscola.postext)
- 最終更新: 2026-10-01
- 他の言語: [en](https://postext.dev/en/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [es](https://postext.dev/es/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [ca](https://postext.dev/ca/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [zh](https://postext.dev/zh/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md), [ar](https://postext.dev/ar/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola.md)

## かんたんな説明

警察をめぐるイングランドの裁判所の判決についての短い評釈です。よりどころにした判例、法律、論文はすべて、英国の法学部で使われる方式で、ページ下の番号付きの注に引用されます。

## できあがり

法学雑誌の判例評釈シリーズの抜き刷りです。警察がどんなときに注意義務を負うかを扱った2018年の英国最高裁判所の判決、*Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police*についての4ページです。判型は162 × 240mmで左右対称、書体はLibre Baskervilleの9.4/13.6pt。1ページ目はクラレット色の帯で始まり、判例名を60ptのイタリックで組みます。著者は典拠をそれぞれ参照箇所付きのキー`[@caparo1990, 617–18]`で書き、PostextはそれをOSCOLAで23の脚注に組みます。OSCOLAは英国の法学部の引用基準です。判例名はイタリック、法律はローマン、AC、HL、ednのあとにピリオドを打たず、直前の注と同じ典拠には*ibid*、それより後では「*Robinson (n 1) [55]*」と書きます。典拠は実在のものですが、著者と雑誌は架空です。

**このレシピが答える問い:**

- 判例と法令を、OSCOLA方式の脚注で引用するには？
- シカゴ・スタイルで引用を脚注にし、2回目以降は短縮形にするには？

## 手短な答え

```js
// script.js, 行 50–68
// The text cites with [@robinson2018, para 21]; OSCOLA is a note style, so each citation
// becomes a footnote: the case in full the first time, "ibid" when the note before cites
// the same authority, "Robinson (n 1) [55]" after that. Case names come out italic,
// statutes roman, and no abbreviation takes a full stop (AC, HL, UKSC, edn, n, s).
registerCitationEngine(createCiteprocEngine({ styles: STYLES, locales: LOCALES }));
const citations = {
  style: 'custom', customStyle: OSCOLA, // the bundled 'oscola', patched above
  locale: 'en-GB', // OSCOLA's words stay English in the Spanish edition too
  notes: 'footnote',
  link: false, // a case comment has no bibliography to link to
  bibliography: { auto: false }, // OSCOLA articles cite in the notes only
};
// The citation notes share the numbering and the look of the author's own [^notes].
const footnotes = {
  placement: 'column', numbering: 'chapter',
  fontSize: pt(7.8), lineHeight: pt(10.2), spaceBetween: pt(2.2),
  textAlign: 'left', // ragged: long report citations would open wide gaps if justified
  separator: { width: 0.25, lineWidth: pt(0.5), color: col('rule') },
};
```

## 材料

**学べること**

- [注による引用](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#引用と参考文献): 注のスタイル（Chicagoの注方式、OSCOLA、GB/T 7714の注）は、各引用を脚注として組み、2回目以降の引用は短縮形にします。中国語の行の中に2行の注として組むこともできます。
- [引用スタイルによる引用](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#引用と参考文献): 引用は[@key, p. 33]のように書き、設定で選んだCSLスタイル（APA、Chicago、MLA、IEEE、Vancouver、ISO 690、GB/T 7714…）で整形され、文献一覧の項目にリンクされます。

**ほかに使うもの**

- [脚注](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#脚注)
- [段抜きの章見出し帯](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#幅と詳細デザイン)
- [デザインした章扉](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#幅と詳細デザイン)
- [見出しの属性](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#見出しの属性)
- [柱とノンブル](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#柱とノンブル)
- [見開きの余白](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#見開きの余白)
- [段落スタイル](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#段落スタイル)
- [セマンティックカラーパレット](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#カラーパレット)
- [PDFの書き出し](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#pdfの生成)
- [相互参照](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#相互参照とアンカー)
- [参考文献から作る文献一覧](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#引用と参考文献)
- [用紙の色](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#ページ)
- [ページの役割ごとの柱](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#テキスト要素)
- [PDFに埋め込むフォント](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#なぜフォントプロバイダーが必要か)

**設定の一覧**

- [`bodyText`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#本文), [`citations`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#引用), [`colorPalette`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#カラーパレット), [`footer`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#柱とノンブル), `footnotes`, [`header`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#柱とノンブル), [`headings`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#見出し), [`layout`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#レイアウト), [`locale`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#ハイフネーション), [`page`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#ページ), [`paragraphStyles`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#段落スタイル)

**API**

- [`LOCALES`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#引用と参考文献), [`STYLES`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#引用と参考文献), [`buildDocument`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#文書のビルド), [`clearMeasurementCache`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#計測キャッシュ), [`createCiteprocEngine`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#引用と参考文献), [`decompressWoff2`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#ブラウザー向けフォントプロバイダーfontsource--woff2), [`registerCitationEngine`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/document-format.md#引用と参考文献), [`renderPageToCanvas`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#ページをビットマップに描画する), [`renderToPdf`](https://postext.dev/ja/docs/configuration.md#pdfの生成)

**書体**

- Libre Baskerville (OFL-1.1), Libre Caslon Display (OFL-1.1), Libre Franklin (OFL-1.1)

## 作り方

### 1 · 典拠ごとにOSCOLAの注

コードは上の[手短な答え](#手短な答え)にあります。OSCOLAは注の方式なので、`[@robinson2018, para 21]`はピリオドのあとに上付きの番号を残し、その文言はページの地に送られます。注1は判例を完全な形で示します（*Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police [2018] UKSC 4, [2018] AC 736*）。直後に同じ判例を引く注2は「*ibid [21]*」、ほかの判例が間に入ったあとの注8は「*Robinson (n 1) [26–27]*」となります。ロー・レビューの論文は注の中でしか引用しないので、`bibliography.auto: false`で最終ページに文献一覧を出さないようにします。

### 2 · 判例はデータ。判例集の印字どおりに書く

判例は`type: legal_case`のCSL項目です。事件名は`title`、裁判所は`authority`、判例集のシリーズは`container-title`、最初のページは`page`に入れます。Appeal Casesのように年が巻を特定する場合、OSCOLAは判例集の年を角括弧に入れるので、このレシピではその年を`volume`に書き、巻の番号をそのあとに続けます。`volume: "[1990] 2"`で「*[1990] 2 AC 605 (HL)*」となります。2001年より後の判決にはニュートラル・サイテーションもあります。`authority: UKSC`、`number: "4"`、`issued: 2018`で「*[2018] UKSC 4*」となり、そのあとに判例集が続きます。法律は`type: legislation`で、年を題に入れて`issued`は付けないので、年が二度印字されません。`[@hra1998, § 6]`は条を「*s 6*」として引用します。

### 3 · 同梱スタイルへの2つの修正

```js
// script.js, 行 32–46
// The bundled oscola.csl writes a paragraph pinpoint in brackets only in a case's first
// note: a later note printed "Robinson (n 1) para 55" and "ibid 27", and a repeated
// statute "ibid 7". These two replacements give "Robinson (n 1) [55]", "ibid [27]" and
// "ibid s 7", as OSCOLA prints them.
const LOCATOR = `<macro name="label-locator"><choose>
  <if type="legal_case" locator="paragraph">
    <text variable="locator" prefix="[" suffix="]"/></if>
  <else-if locator="page"><text variable="locator"/></else-if>
  <else><group delimiter=" "><label form="short" strip-periods="true" variable="locator"/>
    <text variable="locator"/></group></else>
</choose></macro>`;
const OSCOLA = STYLES.oscola
  .replace(/<macro name="label-locator">[\s\S]*?<\/macro>/, LOCATOR)
  .replace(/(<if position="ibid-with-locator">[\s\S]*?)<text variable="locator"\/>/,
    '$1<text macro="label-locator"/>');
```

同梱の`oscola.csl`が段落の参照箇所を角括弧で囲むのは、判例の最初の注だけです。それより後の注では「*para 55*」や「*ibid 27*」と印字され、同じ法律への2回目の注では「*s*」が落ちていました。修正では、ビルドの前にスタイルのXMLのマクロ1つと1行を置き換え、その結果をカスタムスタイルとして渡すので、本文と文献データは変わりません。

### 4 · 帯の上の判例名

```js
// script.js, 行 72–96
const BAND = 124; // mm from the trim's top
const big = (id, content, family, size, color, y, extra = {}) => ({
  kind: 'text', id, content, fontFamily: family, fontSize: pt(size), lineHeight: 1.08, color,
  align: 'left', overflow: 'wrap', ...extra,
  placement: { ...at('container', 'top-left', 0, y), size: { width: mm(118), height: 'auto' } },
});
const opener = {
  enabled: true,
  minHeight: mm(BAND - MARGIN.top + 8), // the text starts 8 mm under the band
  slot: { elements: [
    { kind: 'box', id: 'band', style: { backgroundColor: col('claret') },
      placement: { ...at('page', 'top-left'), size: { width: 'fill', height: mm(BAND) } } },
    big('kicker', '{attr.kicker}', LABEL, 7.4, col('tint'), 2,
      { fontWeight: 600, letterSpacing: pt(1.4), textTransform: 'uppercase' }),
    big('case', '{attr.case}', TEXT, 60, col('paper'), 9, { italic: true }),
    big('parties', '{attr.parties}', TEXT, 12.5, col('tint'), 33, { italic: true }),
    big('citation', '{attr.citation}', TEXT, 10.5, col('tint'), 40),
    { kind: 'box', id: 'hairline', style: { backgroundColor: col('tint') },
      placement: { ...at('container', 'top-left', 0, 51),
        size: { width: mm(30), height: pt(0.6) } } },
    big('title', '{titleText}', DISPLAY, 27, col('paper'), 57),
    big('byline', '{attr.byline}', LABEL, 8.5, col('tint'), 82,
      { fontWeight: 500, letterSpacing: pt(0.5) }),
  ] },
};
```

帯は仕上がり線から124mm下まで伸びます。判例名、当事者、引用は見出しの属性なので、シリーズの別の評釈ではMarkdownを変えるだけですみます。OSCOLAは判例名をイタリックにするので、*Robinson*はLibre Baskerville Italicの60ptで組み、その下の引用は注の中と同じくローマンのままにします。

```js
// script.js, 行 16–23
const palette = {
  ink: '#1f1b1a', claret: '#5e1b26', tint: '#ecdcd8', rule: '#bfb4ad', muted: '#6b625d',
  paper: '#fcfaf6',
};
// A design element paints the hex written beside its paletteId (gotcha: palette-skips-designs).
const col = (id) => ({ hex: palette[id], model: 'hex', paletteId: id });
const colorPalette = Object.entries({ ...palette, 'main-color': palette.claret })
  .map(([id, hex]) => ({ id, name: id, value: { hex, model: 'hex' } }));
```

## レシピの全体

レシピのフォルダーから合成した1つのファイルで、サンプルのテキストとレシピ集の共通キットを埋め込んであり、自分でページを組み立てます。動かすには、空のページの`<script type="module">`に入れるか、新しいCodePenのpenのJSパネルに貼り付けます（モジュールとして）。esm.shからpostextを読み込むので、インストールもビルドも要りません。

- レシピのフォルダー: https://github.com/drnachio/postext/tree/main/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola

### script.js

```js
// ═══ Postext Cookbook · Nº 099 · A legal opinion cited in OSCOLA ══════════════════
// https://postext.dev/en/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola
// Code: MIT · Text: original (CC BY 4.0) · Pictures: none
// Fonts: Libre Baskerville, Libre Caslon Display, Libre Franklin (OFL 1.1) · Needs postext ≥ 1.12.1
import {
  buildDocument, renderPageToCanvas, clearMeasurementCache, registerCitationEngine,
} from 'https://esm.sh/postext';
import { renderToPdf, decompressWoff2 } from 'https://esm.sh/postext-pdf';
import { createCiteprocEngine, STYLES, LOCALES } from 'https://esm.sh/postext-citeproc';

const LANG = 'en'; // @lang: the language of the sample document ('en' | 'es')
const RECIPE = 'legal-opinion-oscola';

// ─── 1 · Design ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
// #region palette: a law-report claret for the band, ink and cream paper for the rest
const palette = {
  ink: '#1f1b1a', claret: '#5e1b26', tint: '#ecdcd8', rule: '#bfb4ad', muted: '#6b625d',
  paper: '#fcfaf6',
};
// A design element paints the hex written beside its paletteId (gotcha: palette-skips-designs).
const col = (id) => ({ hex: palette[id], model: 'hex', paletteId: id });
const colorPalette = Object.entries({ ...palette, 'main-color': palette.claret })
  .map(([id, hex]) => ({ id, name: id, value: { hex, model: 'hex' } }));
// #endregion
const TEXT = 'Libre Baskerville', DISPLAY = 'Libre Caslon Display', LABEL = 'Libre Franklin';
const TRIM = { width: 162, height: 240 }; // a law-journal offprint
const MARGIN = { top: 23, bottom: 22, inner: 19, outer: 21 };
const LEAD = 13.6; // pt
const at = (to, edge, x = 0, y = 0) => ({ anchor: { to, edge }, offset: { x: mm(x), y: mm(y) } });

// #region oscola: two patches to the bundled OSCOLA style, applied before the build
// The bundled oscola.csl writes a paragraph pinpoint in brackets only in a case's first
// note: a later note printed "Robinson (n 1) para 55" and "ibid 27", and a repeated
// statute "ibid 7". These two replacements give "Robinson (n 1) [55]", "ibid [27]" and
// "ibid s 7", as OSCOLA prints them.
const LOCATOR = `<macro name="label-locator"><choose>
  <if type="legal_case" locator="paragraph">
    <text variable="locator" prefix="[" suffix="]"/></if>
  <else-if locator="page"><text variable="locator"/></else-if>
  <else><group delimiter=" "><label form="short" strip-periods="true" variable="locator"/>
    <text variable="locator"/></group></else>
</choose></macro>`;
const OSCOLA = STYLES.oscola
  .replace(/<macro name="label-locator">[\s\S]*?<\/macro>/, LOCATOR)
  .replace(/(<if position="ibid-with-locator">[\s\S]*?)<text variable="locator"\/>/,
    '$1<text macro="label-locator"/>');
// #endregion

// #region answer: OSCOLA footnotes for cases, statutes and articles
// The text cites with [@robinson2018, para 21]; OSCOLA is a note style, so each citation
// becomes a footnote: the case in full the first time, "ibid" when the note before cites
// the same authority, "Robinson (n 1) [55]" after that. Case names come out italic,
// statutes roman, and no abbreviation takes a full stop (AC, HL, UKSC, edn, n, s).
registerCitationEngine(createCiteprocEngine({ styles: STYLES, locales: LOCALES }));
const citations = {
  style: 'custom', customStyle: OSCOLA, // the bundled 'oscola', patched above
  locale: 'en-GB', // OSCOLA's words stay English in the Spanish edition too
  notes: 'footnote',
  link: false, // a case comment has no bibliography to link to
  bibliography: { auto: false }, // OSCOLA articles cite in the notes only
};
// The citation notes share the numbering and the look of the author's own [^notes].
const footnotes = {
  placement: 'column', numbering: 'chapter',
  fontSize: pt(7.8), lineHeight: pt(10.2), spaceBetween: pt(2.2),
  textAlign: 'left', // ragged: long report citations would open wide gaps if justified
  separator: { width: 0.25, lineWidth: pt(0.5), color: col('rule') },
};
// #endregion

// #region opener: the claret band holds the case name, its citation and the title
const BAND = 124; // mm from the trim's top
const big = (id, content, family, size, color, y, extra = {}) => ({
  kind: 'text', id, content, fontFamily: family, fontSize: pt(size), lineHeight: 1.08, color,
  align: 'left', overflow: 'wrap', ...extra,
  placement: { ...at('container', 'top-left', 0, y), size: { width: mm(118), height: 'auto' } },
});
const opener = {
  enabled: true,
  minHeight: mm(BAND - MARGIN.top + 8), // the text starts 8 mm under the band
  slot: { elements: [
    { kind: 'box', id: 'band', style: { backgroundColor: col('claret') },
      placement: { ...at('page', 'top-left'), size: { width: 'fill', height: mm(BAND) } } },
    big('kicker', '{attr.kicker}', LABEL, 7.4, col('tint'), 2,
      { fontWeight: 600, letterSpacing: pt(1.4), textTransform: 'uppercase' }),
    big('case', '{attr.case}', TEXT, 60, col('paper'), 9, { italic: true }),
    big('parties', '{attr.parties}', TEXT, 12.5, col('tint'), 33, { italic: true }),
    big('citation', '{attr.citation}', TEXT, 10.5, col('tint'), 40),
    { kind: 'box', id: 'hairline', style: { backgroundColor: col('tint') },
      placement: { ...at('container', 'top-left', 0, 51),
        size: { width: mm(30), height: pt(0.6) } } },
    big('title', '{titleText}', DISPLAY, 27, col('paper'), 57),
    big('byline', '{attr.byline}', LABEL, 8.5, col('tint'), 82,
      { fontWeight: 500, letterSpacing: pt(0.5) }),
  ] },
};
// #endregion

const head = (id, content, parity, edge, x, align) => ({
  kind: 'text', id, content, parity, pages: 'body', fontFamily: LABEL, fontWeight: 500,
  fontSize: pt(7.2), letterSpacing: pt(1), textTransform: 'uppercase', color: col('muted'),
  align, placement: at('page', edge, x, 13),
});
const journal = t({ en: 'Notes on Obligations', es: 'Cuadernos de Obligaciones' });

const config = () => ({ // a factory: the engine caches resolved configs per object
  locale: t({ en: 'en-us', es: 'es' }), // exact codes (gotcha: hyphenation-locales)
  colorPalette,
  citations,
  footnotes,
  page: {
    sizePreset: 'custom', width: mm(TRIM.width), height: mm(TRIM.height), dpi: 150,
    backgroundColor: col('paper'),
    margins: { top: mm(MARGIN.top), bottom: mm(MARGIN.bottom), left: mm(MARGIN.inner),
      right: mm(MARGIN.outer), mirror: true },
  },
  layout: { layoutType: 'single' },
  bodyText: {
    fontFamily: TEXT, fontSize: pt(9.4), lineHeight: pt(LEAD), color: col('ink'),
    boldColor: col('ink'), italicColor: col('ink'), referenceColor: col('ink'),
    textAlign: 'justify', firstLineIndent: mm(4.5), indentAfterHeading: false,
    hyphenation: { enabled: true }, optimalLineBreaking: true,
    avoidWidows: true, avoidOrphans: true, avoidRunts: true,
  },
  headings: {
    fontFamily: TEXT, fontWeight: 400, color: col('ink'),
    levels: [
      // Restated: any headings object drops the H1 break (gotcha: headings-drop-h1-break).
      { level: 1, fontSize: pt(27), breakBefore: { enabled: true, parity: 'any' },
        advancedDesign: opener },
      { level: 2, italic: true, fontSize: pt(12), color: col('claret'),
        lineHeight: pt(LEAD), marginTop: pt(LEAD), marginBottom: pt(LEAD / 2) },
    ],
  },
  paragraphStyles: [
    { id: 'colophon', fontFamily: LABEL, fontSize: pt(6.8), lineHeight: pt(9.2),
      color: col('muted'), textAlign: 'left', firstLineIndent: pt(0), marginTop: pt(LEAD) },
  ],
  header: { elements: [
    head('verso-folio', '{pageNumber}', 'even', 'top-left', MARGIN.outer, 'left'),
    head('verso-journal', journal, 'even', 'top-left', MARGIN.outer + 8, 'left'),
    head('recto-title', '{title}', 'odd', 'top-right', -(MARGIN.outer + 8), 'right'),
    head('recto-folio', '{pageNumber}', 'odd', 'top-right', -MARGIN.outer, 'right'),
  ] },
  footer: { elements: [ // a drop folio on the opener page only
    { kind: 'text', id: 'drop-folio', content: '{pageNumber}', pages: 'opener',
      fontFamily: LABEL, fontWeight: 500, fontSize: pt(7.2), color: col('muted'),
      align: 'center', placement: at('page', 'bottom', 0, -11) },
  ] },
});

// ─── 2 · Content ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
const markdown = String.raw`---
title: "Acts, Omissions and the Police"
author: "Harriet Okafor"
---

# Acts, Omissions and the Police {#comment kicker="Notes on Obligations · Case Comment" case="Robinson" parties="v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police" citation="[2018] UKSC 4, [2018] AC 736" byline="Harriet Okafor"}

On a July afternoon in 2008 two detectives tried to arrest a man suspected of dealing drugs on a shopping street in the centre of Huddersfield. He resisted, and the three men fell against Mrs Robinson, a woman of 76 who was walking past, and knocked her to the ground. The trial judge found that the officers had been careless in attempting the arrest where and when they did, but held that the police owed no duty of care to a passer-by hurt in the course of their work against crime. The Court of Appeal agreed. The Supreme Court did not.[@robinson2018]

Lord Reed, with whom Lady Hale and Lord Hodge agreed, began by correcting a reading of the law that had gone uncorrected for almost thirty years.[@robinson2018, para 21] This comment argues that the case matters less for what it decided about the police than for the method it restored. A court asked whether a duty of care exists should look first for an established category and reason from it by analogy; it should weigh questions of policy only when the case is new.

## There is no “Caparo test”

The modern law begins with Lord Atkin’s statement that a person must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which he can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure his neighbour.[@donoghue1932, 580] In the 1970s the House of Lords tried to turn that statement into a general formula. Lord Wilberforce proposed two stages: a relationship of proximity in which harm was foreseeable, and then any considerations that ought to negative or limit the duty.[@anns1978, 751–52] The formula expanded liability faster than the courts could defend, and *Anns* was overruled in 1990.[@murphy1991]

In the same year Lord Bridge described the ingredients of a duty as foreseeability of damage, a relationship of proximity, and a situation in which the court considers it fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty.[@caparo1990, 617–18] Many judges went on to apply it as a three-stage test to every claim, including claims for physical injury caused by a positive act. Lord Bridge had said the opposite. He doubted that any single test could settle every case and preferred that the law develop novel categories incrementally.[^brennan]

[^brennan]: Lord Bridge adopted the words of Brennan J in the High Court of Australia; see [@caparo1990, 618; @sutherland1985, 481]

*Robinson* restores that reading. Where a case falls within an established category, the court applies the law as settled; the question of what is fair, just and reasonable arises only where the court is asked to go further.[@robinson2018, para 26–27] Physical injury caused by a careless positive act has been an established category since *Donoghue*. The officers’ decision to make the arrest in a crowded street was such an act, the risk to people nearby was foreseeable, and nothing more was needed to found a duty.[@robinson2018, para 74]

## Acts and omissions

The common law does not, in general, impose a duty to protect another from harm caused by a third party or by nature.[@smith1987, 271] Lord Hoffmann gave the reason in political terms: it is less of an invasion of a person’s freedom to require him to take care when he chooses to act than to require him to act at all, and a duty to rescue invites the question why it should fall on one bystander rather than another.[@stovin1996, 943–44] The rule has exceptions: where the defendant has assumed responsibility, controls the source of the danger, or has created it.

Read in this light, the earlier police cases were cases about omissions. In *Hill* the mother of the last victim of Peter Sutcliffe sued the force that had failed to catch him. The House of Lords held that no duty was owed to her daughter, who was one of an indeterminate public, and added reasons of policy about the effect of liability on police work.[@hill1989, 63] For thirty years *Hill* was cited as if it gave the police a general immunity. Lord Reed treated the policy reasons as a supplement to the ordinary rule: the police, like anyone else, owe no duty to prevent harm by a third party, unless one of the exceptions applies; but they owe the ordinary duty not to injure people by what they themselves do.[@robinson2018, para 55]

The distinction had already decided *Michael*, where a call to the emergency services was wrongly graded and the caller was killed before officers arrived. The majority held that the police had assumed no responsibility for her safety and so owed her no duty in negligence.[@michael2015, para 97–100] Academic opinion had divided on the point. One view holds that a public body set up to protect people should bear a narrow duty where it knows of a specific threat to a specific person;[^peripheral] the other, that the omissions rule applies to public authorities as it applies to private persons, and that any wider duty is for Parliament.[@nolan2011]

[^peripheral]: [@tofaris2016, 130–32; cf @stapleton1995, 304–06, on the deterrent value of claims against parties who are not the primary wrongdoer]

## The statutory route

Section 6(1) of the Human Rights Act 1998 makes it unlawful for a public authority to act in a way that is incompatible with a Convention right,[@hra1998, § 6] and a victim may bring proceedings against it under section 7.[@hra1998, § 7] In *Michael* the claim under article 2 of the Convention was allowed to go to trial even though the claim in negligence failed.[@michael2015, para 139] In *DSD* the Supreme Court held the police liable under article 3 for serious failures in investigating a series of sexual assaults by a taxi driver.[@dsd2018, para 24]

The concern behind *Hill*, that liability would push the police into defensive practices, has a statutory answer of its own. When a court decides what steps a defendant should have taken to meet the standard of care, it may consider whether requiring those steps might prevent a desirable activity from being undertaken.[@compensation2006, § 1] That is a question of breach, not of duty. The officers in *Robinson* were not expected to stop arresting suspects, only to choose the moment with some regard for the people on the pavement.

## Comment

A year later the Supreme Court applied the same method to a local authority that had failed to rehouse a family harassed by their neighbours, and found no duty, because the council had neither created the danger nor assumed responsibility for the children’s safety.[@poole2019, para 64–65] The two decisions point in different directions on their facts and rest on the same reasoning.

Two difficulties remain. The line between acts and omissions is easy to state and hard to draw: an officer who opens a door and lets a violent man in has acted, but one who fails to lock it has not, and the difference may be small to the person on the other side. And the exceptions do much of the work. An assumption of responsibility can be found in a promise, a practice or the nature of a service, and the cases since *Robinson* show that the courts have not agreed how readily to find one.[^generally] The case does not resolve either difficulty; it puts them where they belong, in the analysis of established categories, and not in an open question about what is fair.

[^generally]: For the exceptions and the cases on each, see generally [@winfield2020]

:::paragraphs{style="colophon"}
Written for the Postext Cookbook (CC BY 4.0). Author and series are fictional; this is not legal advice. The authorities are real; some pinpoints are illustrative. Set in Libre Baskerville, Libre Caslon Display and Libre Franklin (SIL OFL).
:::

:::references{format=csl-yaml}
- id: donoghue1932
  type: legal_case
  title: Donoghue v Stevenson
  title-short: Donoghue
  volume: "[1932]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "562"
  authority: HL
- id: anns1978
  type: legal_case
  title: Anns v Merton London Borough Council
  title-short: Anns
  volume: "[1978]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "728"
  authority: HL
- id: murphy1991
  type: legal_case
  title: Murphy v Brentwood District Council
  title-short: Murphy
  volume: "[1991] 1"
  container-title: AC
  page: "398"
  authority: HL
- id: caparo1990
  type: legal_case
  title: Caparo Industries plc v Dickman
  title-short: Caparo
  volume: "[1990] 2"
  container-title: AC
  page: "605"
  authority: HL
- id: sutherland1985
  type: legal_case
  title: Sutherland Shire Council v Heyman
  title-short: Sutherland
  volume: "157"
  container-title: CLR
  page: "424"
  authority: HCA
  issued: 1985
- id: smith1987
  type: legal_case
  title: Smith v Littlewoods Organisation Ltd
  title-short: Smith
  volume: "[1987]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "241"
  authority: HL
- id: stovin1996
  type: legal_case
  title: Stovin v Wise
  title-short: Stovin
  volume: "[1996]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "923"
  authority: HL
- id: hill1989
  type: legal_case
  title: Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire
  title-short: Hill
  volume: "[1989]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "53"
  authority: HL
- id: michael2015
  type: legal_case
  title: Michael v Chief Constable of South Wales Police
  title-short: Michael
  authority: UKSC
  number: "2"
  issued: 2015
  volume: "[2015]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "1732"
- id: robinson2018
  type: legal_case
  title: Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police
  title-short: Robinson
  authority: UKSC
  number: "4"
  issued: 2018
  volume: "[2018]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "736"
- id: dsd2018
  type: legal_case
  title: Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis v DSD
  title-short: DSD
  authority: UKSC
  number: "11"
  issued: 2018
  volume: "[2019]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "196"
- id: poole2019
  type: legal_case
  title: N v Poole Borough Council
  title-short: Poole
  authority: UKSC
  number: "25"
  issued: 2019
  volume: "[2020]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "780"
- id: hra1998
  type: legislation
  title: Human Rights Act 1998
- id: compensation2006
  type: legislation
  title: Compensation Act 2006
- id: stapleton1995
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Stapleton, given: Jane}]
  title: "Duty of Care: Peripheral Parties and Alternative Opportunities for Deterrence"
  container-title: LQR
  volume: "111"
  page: "301"
  issued: 1995
- id: nolan2011
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Nolan, given: Donal}]
  title: The Liability of Public Authorities for Failing to Confer Benefits
  container-title: LQR
  volume: "127"
  page: "260"
  issued: 2011
- id: tofaris2016
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Tofaris, given: Stelios}, {family: Steel, given: Sandy}]
  title: Negligence Liability for Omissions and the Police
  container-title: CLJ
  volume: "75"
  page: "128"
  issued: 2016
- id: winfield2020
  type: book
  author: [{family: Goudkamp, given: James}, {family: Nolan, given: Donal}]
  title: Winfield and Jolowicz on Tort
  edition: 20
  publisher: Sweet & Maxwell
  issued: 2020
:::
`;

// ─── 3 · Fonts ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
// Every face the design uses (gotcha: fonts-first).
const FONTS = {
  'Libre Baskerville': ['400', '400i', '700'],
  'Libre Caslon Display': ['400'],
  'Libre Franklin': ['400', '500', '600'],
};

// ─── 4 · Build & show ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
await loadFonts(FONTS, markdown);
const doc = await buildWithFonts(() => buildDocument({ markdown }, config()), markdown);
const title = t({ en: 'A legal opinion cited in OSCOLA',
  es: 'Un dictamen jurídico citado en OSCOLA' });
showPages(doc, { title });
offerPdf(() => renderToPdf(doc, { fontProvider: fontsourceProvider }), `${RECIPE}.pdf`);

// ─── Kit ── helpers shared by every Cookbook recipe · postext.dev/cookbook ─────

// ─── Kit · core v1 ── the same in every recipe · postext.dev/cookbook ─────────
function mm(value) { return { value, unit: 'mm' }; }
function pt(value) { return { value, unit: 'pt' }; }
function em(value) { return { value, unit: 'em' }; }
/** The sample language's string: t({ en: 'Figure', es: 'Figura' }). */
function t(strings) { return strings[LANG] ?? Object.values(strings)[0]; }
/** A file in this recipe's assets folder, served from the Postext repo by jsDelivr. */
function asset(file) { return `https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/drnachio/postext@main/cookbook/${RECIPE}/assets/${file}`; }

// ─── Kit · fonts v1 ── the same in every recipe · postext.dev/cookbook ────────
// Postext measures text with the faces the browser has loaded, and caches the
// widths, so every face must be ready before the first build. Faces come from
// Fontsource: the same static files the PDF embeds, so screen and PDF agree.

/** faces = { 'Family Name': ['400', '400i', '700'] }. `text` is the sample:
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async function loadFonts(faces, text = '', { optional = false } = {}) {
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  return added;
}

/** Runs `build` (a buildDocument or buildBundle call) and checks the faces
 *  the pages use. A regular face missing from FONTS is loaded with a warning;
 *  bold and italic variants are loaded when the family ships them. Then the
 *  measurement caches are cleared and the build runs again. */
async function buildWithFonts(build, text = '') {
  const tried = new Set();
  for (let round = 0; round < 3; round++) {
    kitStatus('Laying out…');
    await new Promise(requestAnimationFrame);          // let the status paint first
    const result = await Promise.resolve().then(build).catch((error) => { kitFail(error); throw error; });
    const wanted = { base: {}, variants: {} };
    for (const { font, base } of [result].flat().flatMap(fontStringsOf)) {
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      const key = `${family}|${weight}|${style}`;
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      (wanted[base ? 'base' : 'variants'][family] ??= []).push(`${weight}${style === 'italic' ? 'i' : ''}`);
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    const added = await loadFonts(wanted.base, text) + await loadFonts(wanted.variants, text, { optional: true });
    if (added === 0) return result;
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  throw new Error('The fonts did not settle after three builds.');
}

/** Every font string of the layout. `base` marks a block's own face; its
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function fontStringsOf(doc) {
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  const walk = (node) => {
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        found.set(value, found.get(value) || key === 'fontString');
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  };
  walk(doc.pages);
  walk(doc.blocks);
  return [...found].map(([font, base]) => ({ font, base }));
}

/** '700 37.5px Open Sans' / 'italic 400 13px "Source Serif 4"' → { family, weight, style }.
 *  A string with no weight ('95.8px Young Serif', from a design text) is 400. */
function parseFont(font) {
  const m = /^(?:(italic|oblique)\s+)?(?:small-caps\s+)?(?:(\d+|bold|normal)\s+)?[\d.]+px\s+(.+)$/.exec(font.trim());
  if (!m) throw new Error(`Unexpected font string: ${font}`);
  const weight = m[2] === 'bold' ? 700 : !m[2] || m[2] === 'normal' ? 400 : Number(m[2]);
  return { family: m[3].replace(/^["']|["']$/g, ''), weight, style: m[1] ? 'italic' : 'normal' };
}

/** True when a loaded FontFace covers exactly this family, weight and style
 *  (document.fonts.check() is also true for families nobody declared). */
function hasFace(family, weight, style) {
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    if (weight >= low && weight <= high) return true;
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  return false;
}

/** Fontsource's id for a family: 'Source Serif 4' → 'source-serif-4'. */
function fontsourceId(family) { return family.toLowerCase().replace(/\s+/g, '-'); }

/** The weights and styles a family ships ({ weights: [400, 700], styles: ['normal', 'italic'] }), or null. */
function fontsourceMeta(family) {
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    fontsourceMeta.cache.set(id, fetch(`https://api.fontsource.org/v1/fonts/${id}`)
      .then((res) => (res.ok ? res.json() : null), () => null));
  }
  return fontsourceMeta.cache.get(id);
}

// ─── Kit · viewer v1 ── the same in every recipe · postext.dev/cookbook ───────
/** Shows the pages as facing spreads on a dark desk: the first page is a
 *  recto on its own, then verso | recto pairs, as in a bound book. Pages
 *  are painted when they scroll near the screen. */
function showPages(docs, { title, width = 460 } = {}) {
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  const pages = [docs].flat().flatMap((doc) =>
    doc.pages.map((page) => ({ doc, page, n: (doc.pageIndexOffset ?? 0) + page.index })));
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  let verso = null;
  for (const p of pages) {
    if (p.n % 2 === 1) { if (verso) spreads.push([verso, null]); verso = p; }
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  if (verso) spreads.push([verso, null]);
  const density = Math.min(window.devicePixelRatio || 1, 2);
  showPages.painter?.disconnect();
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      const { doc, page } = target.postext;
      renderPageToCanvas(page, doc, target, { scale: (width * density) / page.width });
    }
  }, { rootMargin: '800px' });
  showPages.painter = painter;
  root.replaceChildren(...spreads.map((pair) => {
    const spread = document.createElement('div');
    spread.className = 'pt-spread';
    for (const p of pair) {
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      if (p) {
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        const canvas = document.createElement('canvas');
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        canvas.style.aspectRatio = `${p.page.width} / ${p.page.height}`;
        canvas.setAttribute('role', 'img');
        canvas.setAttribute('aria-label', `Page ${label}`);
        const folio = document.createElement('figcaption');
        folio.textContent = label;
        figure.append(canvas, folio);
        painter.observe(canvas);
      } else figure.className = 'pt-blank';
      spread.append(figure);
    }
    return spread;
  }));
  kitStatus(`${pages.length} ${pages.length === 1 ? 'page' : 'pages'}`);
  document.documentElement.dataset.postext = 'ready';
  return pages.length;
}

/** The desk, the bar and the error reporting, created once. */
function viewer(title) {
  if (!document.getElementById('pt-kit')) {
    document.head.insertAdjacentHTML('beforeend', `<style id="pt-kit">
      :root { color-scheme: dark; }
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      #pt-bar { position: sticky; top: 0; z-index: 1; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; align-items: center;
        gap: 6px 16px; padding: 10px 16px; background: rgb(14 16 20 / .92); backdrop-filter: blur(6px);
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      #pt-bar strong { color: #f4f1ea; font-weight: 600; }
      #pt-actions { display: flex; gap: 12px; margin-left: auto; }
      #pt-actions a, #pt-actions button { color: #d8a21a; font: inherit; background: none; border: 0; padding: 0; cursor: pointer; }
      #pages { display: grid; justify-items: center; gap: 48px; padding: 32px 16px 72px; }
      .pt-spread { display: flex; }
      .pt-spread figure { margin: 0; width: min(460px, 44vw); }
      .pt-spread canvas { display: block; width: 100%; background: #fff;
        box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgb(0 0 0 / .5), 0 22px 44px -16px rgb(0 0 0 / .8); }
      .pt-spread figure:first-child canvas { box-shadow: inset -14px 0 14px -14px rgb(0 0 0 / .18), 0 1px 2px rgb(0 0 0 / .5), 0 22px 44px -16px rgb(0 0 0 / .8); }
      .pt-spread figcaption { margin-top: 10px; text-align: center; font: 600 10px/1 system-ui, sans-serif;
        letter-spacing: .18em; text-transform: uppercase; color: #6c7079; }
      .pt-blank { visibility: hidden; }
      @media (max-width: 760px) {
        .pt-spread { flex-direction: column; gap: 32px; }
        .pt-spread figure { width: min(460px, 92vw); }
        .pt-blank { display: none; }
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    document.body.insertAdjacentHTML('afterbegin',
      '<header id="pt-bar"><strong id="pt-title"></strong><span id="pt-status" role="status"></span><span id="pt-actions"></span></header>');
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    addEventListener('error', (event) => kitFail(event.error ?? event.message));
    addEventListener('unhandledrejection', (event) => kitFail(event.reason));
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  if (title) document.getElementById('pt-title').textContent = title;
  return document.getElementById('pages')
    ?? document.body.appendChild(Object.assign(document.createElement('main'), { id: 'pages' }));
}

function kitStatus(text) {
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  document.getElementById('pt-status').textContent = text;
}

function kitFail(error) {
  document.documentElement.dataset.postext = 'error';
  kitStatus(`Error: ${error?.message ?? error}`);
}

// ─── Kit · pdf v1 ── the same in every recipe that exports a PDF ──────────────
/** postext-pdf embeds TrueType bytes. Fetch the Fontsource file the screen
 *  used, snapping to a weight the family ships and falling back to upright
 *  when it has no italic: the PDF asks for every face a block could use. */
async function fontsourceProvider(family, weight, style) {
  const id = fontsourceId(family);
  const meta = await fontsourceMeta(family);
  const weights = meta?.weights?.length ? meta.weights : [400, 700];
  const w = weights.reduce((a, b) => (Math.abs(b - weight) < Math.abs(a - weight) ? b : a));
  const s = style === 'italic' && meta && !meta.styles.includes('italic') ? 'normal' : style;
  const res = await fetch(`https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/@fontsource/${id}@5/files/${id}-latin-${w}-${s}.woff2`);
  if (!res.ok) throw new Error(`Fontsource has no ${family} ${w} ${s} (${res.status})`);
  return decompressWoff2(new Uint8Array(await res.arrayBuffer()));
}

/** A "Build the PDF" button in the bar. Once built: "Open the PDF" (a new
 *  tab, since CodePen's preview frame cannot show PDFs) and a download link. */
function offerPdf(makePdf, filename) {
  viewer();
  const button = Object.assign(document.createElement('button'), { type: 'button', textContent: 'Build the PDF' });
  button.dataset.postextPdf = filename;
  button.addEventListener('click', async () => {
    button.disabled = true;
    button.textContent = 'Building the PDF…';
    try {
      const bytes = await makePdf();
      const url = URL.createObjectURL(new Blob([bytes], { type: 'application/pdf' }));
      const size = `${Math.max(1, Math.round(bytes.length / 1024))} KB`;
      button.replaceWith(
        Object.assign(document.createElement('a'), { href: url, target: '_blank', rel: 'noopener', textContent: 'Open the PDF ↗' }),
        Object.assign(document.createElement('a'), { href: url, download: filename, textContent: `Download ${filename} · ${size}` }));
    } catch (error) {
      button.disabled = false;
      button.textContent = 'Build the PDF';
      kitFail(error);
    }
  });
  document.getElementById('pt-actions').append(button);
}

// ─── /Kit ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
```

## アレンジ

### 同梱のままのスタイルで印字する

修正前の出力と比べるには、同梱のidを使います。すると、それより後の注の段落の参照箇所は「*para 55*」となります。

```diff
-  style: 'custom', customStyle: OSCOLA, // the bundled 'oscola', patched above
+  style: 'oscola',
```

### 注を末尾にまとめる

本文のあとに注を印字する雑誌もあります。引用は完全形と短縮形、そして番号をそのまま保ちます。

```diff
-  placement: 'column', numbering: 'chapter',
+  placement: 'chapterEnd', numbering: 'chapter',
```

## よくあるつまずき

- **headingsオブジェクトを渡すとH1の改ページが消える.** 既定ではH1は奇数ページへ改ページします（always-odd）。ところがheadingsオブジェクトを渡すと中身にかかわらずこの既定がリセットされ、章は改ページせずに続けて組まれ、span: 'page'も効かなくなります。どの設定でもheadings.levels[0].breakBefore: { enabled: true, parity }を書き直してください。
- **レイアウトの前にすべてのフォントを読み込む.** レイアウトはブラウザーが読み込んだフォントで文字を計測し、その幅をキャッシュします。最初のビルドのあとに届いたフォントがあると改行位置が狂い、PDFも画面と一致しなくなります。すべてのウェイトとスタイルを先に読み込み、遅れて届いたときは再ビルドの前にclearMeasurementCache()を呼んでください。
- **パレットを差し替えても、デザイン要素と参照色は変わらない.** postext 1.4.1はcolorPaletteをテキストのスタイル（本文、見出し、リスト、キャプション、表、囲み）には反映しますが、ヘッダー、フッター、章扉、部扉の要素と、bodyText.referenceColorには反映しません。これらはpaletteIdの横に書いた16進の色のままです。画面用のダーク版や色替えのためにパレットを差し替えるときは、ビルドの前に、リンクしたすべての色をcolorPaletteから書き直してください。
- **ハイフネーションできるのは8つのロケールだけで、コードは完全一致.** ハイフネーションが用意されているのはen-us、es、fr、de、it、pt、ca、nlで、コードは完全一致で照合されます。'es-ES'やほかの言語は、何の知らせもなくアメリカ英語にフォールバックします。
- **設定はオブジェクトの同一性でキャッシュされる。毎回新しいオブジェクトを作る.** エンジンは解決済みの設定をオブジェクトの同一性でキャッシュします。そのため、設定をその場で書き換えて再ビルドすると前の結果が再利用されます。ビルドのたびに新しいオブジェクトを作ってください。レシピの設定がファクトリー関数config()になっているのはこのためです。

- 巻が単なる数字の判例集（`volume: "2"`）は年を丸括弧で印字し、「*(1990) 2 AC*」となります。OSCOLAがこの形を使うのは、Commonwealth Law Reportsのように年をまたいで巻番号を通すシリーズです（注7）。Appeal CasesとWeekly Law Reportsでは、角括弧付きの年を`volume`に書いてください。
- ロケーターの前の`s`はページ（ドイツ語の*Seite*）を意味し、条ではありません。`§ 6`と書きます。`6(1)`のような項はロケーターとして読まれないので、項は文中で示し、条を引用します。
- OSCOLAでは論文に参考文献を付けず、このスタイルには判例一覧と法令一覧を分けて出す機能もありません。そうした一覧が必要な学位論文では、`:::bibliography`から1つにソートした一覧が得られ、二次文献が先に、続いて判例と法律が混ざって並びます。

## クレジット

- レシピ: Ignacio Ferro ([@drnachio](https://github.com/drnachio))
- 書体: Libre Baskerville (OFL-1.1), Libre Caslon Display (OFL-1.1), Libre Franklin (OFL-1.1)
- コード: MIT · サンプルの内容: CC-BY-4.0

## 関連レシピ

- [No. 089 · シカゴ式の注を付けた歴史論文](https://postext.dev/ja/cookbook/history-essay-chicago-notes.md): 4ページの歴史論文。[@key, 87]の引用がページの地にシカゴ式の注として組まれます。初出は完全な形、以降は短縮形で、末尾に参考文献が付きます。 · 難易度 2 (中級) · 論文・学術書
- [No. 096 · MLA形式の引用文献一覧を付けた人文学の論文](https://postext.dev/ja/cookbook/mla-humanities-essay.md): 文学論文の[@key, 48]形式の引用を、MLA第9版の著者名とページによる参照に変えます。ブロック引用と、CSL-YAMLのデータから作るWorks Citedの一覧も入ります。 · 難易度 2 (中級) · 論文・学術書
- [No. 095 · バンクーバー方式の医学論文](https://postext.dev/ja/cookbook/medical-article-vancouver.md): A4判2段組みの臨床試験報告。上付きの引用番号、番号付きのバンクーバー方式の文献一覧、PDFでリンクとして開くDOIを備えます。 · 難易度 2 (中級) · 論文・学術書