A legal opinion cited in OSCOLA

// ═══ Postext Cookbook · Nº 099 · A legal opinion cited in OSCOLA ══════════════════
// https://postext.dev/en/cookbook/legal-opinion-oscola
// Code: MIT · Text: original (CC BY 4.0) · Pictures: none
// Fonts: Libre Baskerville, Libre Caslon Display, Libre Franklin (OFL 1.1) · Needs postext ≥ 1.12.1
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import { renderToPdf, decompressWoff2 } from 'https://esm.sh/postext-pdf';
import { createCiteprocEngine, STYLES, LOCALES } from 'https://esm.sh/postext-citeproc';

const LANG = 'en'; // @lang: the language of the sample document ('en' | 'es')
const RECIPE = 'legal-opinion-oscola';

// ─── 1 · Design ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
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// note: a later note printed "Robinson (n 1) para 55" and "ibid 27", and a repeated
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// the same authority, "Robinson (n 1) [55]" after that. Case names come out italic,
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// ─── 2 · Content ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
const markdown = String.raw`---
Markdown sample · 192 lines · content.en.md
title: "Acts, Omissions and the Police"
author: "Harriet Okafor"
---

# Acts, Omissions and the Police {#comment kicker="Notes on Obligations · Case Comment" case="Robinson" parties="v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police" citation="[2018] UKSC 4, [2018] AC 736" byline="Harriet Okafor"}

On a July afternoon in 2008 two detectives tried to arrest a man suspected of dealing drugs on a shopping street in the centre of Huddersfield. He resisted, and the three men fell against Mrs Robinson, a woman of 76 who was walking past, and knocked her to the ground. The trial judge found that the officers had been careless in attempting the arrest where and when they did, but held that the police owed no duty of care to a passer-by hurt in the course of their work against crime. The Court of Appeal agreed. The Supreme Court did not.[@robinson2018]

Lord Reed, with whom Lady Hale and Lord Hodge agreed, began by correcting a reading of the law that had gone uncorrected for almost thirty years.[@robinson2018, para 21] This comment argues that the case matters less for what it decided about the police than for the method it restored. A court asked whether a duty of care exists should look first for an established category and reason from it by analogy; it should weigh questions of policy only when the case is new.

## There is no “Caparo test”

The modern law begins with Lord Atkin’s statement that a person must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which he can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure his neighbour.[@donoghue1932, 580] In the 1970s the House of Lords tried to turn that statement into a general formula. Lord Wilberforce proposed two stages: a relationship of proximity in which harm was foreseeable, and then any considerations that ought to negative or limit the duty.[@anns1978, 751–52] The formula expanded liability faster than the courts could defend, and *Anns* was overruled in 1990.[@murphy1991]

In the same year Lord Bridge described the ingredients of a duty as foreseeability of damage, a relationship of proximity, and a situation in which the court considers it fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty.[@caparo1990, 617–18] Many judges went on to apply it as a three-stage test to every claim, including claims for physical injury caused by a positive act. Lord Bridge had said the opposite. He doubted that any single test could settle every case and preferred that the law develop novel categories incrementally.[^brennan]

[^brennan]: Lord Bridge adopted the words of Brennan J in the High Court of Australia; see [@caparo1990, 618; @sutherland1985, 481]

*Robinson* restores that reading. Where a case falls within an established category, the court applies the law as settled; the question of what is fair, just and reasonable arises only where the court is asked to go further.[@robinson2018, para 26–27] Physical injury caused by a careless positive act has been an established category since *Donoghue*. The officers’ decision to make the arrest in a crowded street was such an act, the risk to people nearby was foreseeable, and nothing more was needed to found a duty.[@robinson2018, para 74]

## Acts and omissions

The common law does not, in general, impose a duty to protect another from harm caused by a third party or by nature.[@smith1987, 271] Lord Hoffmann gave the reason in political terms: it is less of an invasion of a person’s freedom to require him to take care when he chooses to act than to require him to act at all, and a duty to rescue invites the question why it should fall on one bystander rather than another.[@stovin1996, 943–44] The rule has exceptions: where the defendant has assumed responsibility, controls the source of the danger, or has created it.

Read in this light, the earlier police cases were cases about omissions. In *Hill* the mother of the last victim of Peter Sutcliffe sued the force that had failed to catch him. The House of Lords held that no duty was owed to her daughter, who was one of an indeterminate public, and added reasons of policy about the effect of liability on police work.[@hill1989, 63] For thirty years *Hill* was cited as if it gave the police a general immunity. Lord Reed treated the policy reasons as a supplement to the ordinary rule: the police, like anyone else, owe no duty to prevent harm by a third party, unless one of the exceptions applies; but they owe the ordinary duty not to injure people by what they themselves do.[@robinson2018, para 55]

The distinction had already decided *Michael*, where a call to the emergency services was wrongly graded and the caller was killed before officers arrived. The majority held that the police had assumed no responsibility for her safety and so owed her no duty in negligence.[@michael2015, para 97–100] Academic opinion had divided on the point. One view holds that a public body set up to protect people should bear a narrow duty where it knows of a specific threat to a specific person;[^peripheral] the other, that the omissions rule applies to public authorities as it applies to private persons, and that any wider duty is for Parliament.[@nolan2011]

[^peripheral]: [@tofaris2016, 130–32; cf @stapleton1995, 304–06, on the deterrent value of claims against parties who are not the primary wrongdoer]

## The statutory route

Section 6(1) of the Human Rights Act 1998 makes it unlawful for a public authority to act in a way that is incompatible with a Convention right,[@hra1998, § 6] and a victim may bring proceedings against it under section 7.[@hra1998, § 7] In *Michael* the claim under article 2 of the Convention was allowed to go to trial even though the claim in negligence failed.[@michael2015, para 139] In *DSD* the Supreme Court held the police liable under article 3 for serious failures in investigating a series of sexual assaults by a taxi driver.[@dsd2018, para 24]

The concern behind *Hill*, that liability would push the police into defensive practices, has a statutory answer of its own. When a court decides what steps a defendant should have taken to meet the standard of care, it may consider whether requiring those steps might prevent a desirable activity from being undertaken.[@compensation2006, § 1] That is a question of breach, not of duty. The officers in *Robinson* were not expected to stop arresting suspects, only to choose the moment with some regard for the people on the pavement.

## Comment

A year later the Supreme Court applied the same method to a local authority that had failed to rehouse a family harassed by their neighbours, and found no duty, because the council had neither created the danger nor assumed responsibility for the children’s safety.[@poole2019, para 64–65] The two decisions point in different directions on their facts and rest on the same reasoning.

Two difficulties remain. The line between acts and omissions is easy to state and hard to draw: an officer who opens a door and lets a violent man in has acted, but one who fails to lock it has not, and the difference may be small to the person on the other side. And the exceptions do much of the work. An assumption of responsibility can be found in a promise, a practice or the nature of a service, and the cases since *Robinson* show that the courts have not agreed how readily to find one.[^generally] The case does not resolve either difficulty; it puts them where they belong, in the analysis of established categories, and not in an open question about what is fair.

[^generally]: For the exceptions and the cases on each, see generally [@winfield2020]

:::paragraphs{style="colophon"}
Written for the Postext Cookbook (CC BY 4.0). Author and series are fictional; this is not legal advice. The authorities are real; some pinpoints are illustrative. Set in Libre Baskerville, Libre Caslon Display and Libre Franklin (SIL OFL).
:::

:::references{format=csl-yaml}
- id: donoghue1932
  type: legal_case
  title: Donoghue v Stevenson
  title-short: Donoghue
  volume: "[1932]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "562"
  authority: HL
- id: anns1978
  type: legal_case
  title: Anns v Merton London Borough Council
  title-short: Anns
  volume: "[1978]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "728"
  authority: HL
- id: murphy1991
  type: legal_case
  title: Murphy v Brentwood District Council
  title-short: Murphy
  volume: "[1991] 1"
  container-title: AC
  page: "398"
  authority: HL
- id: caparo1990
  type: legal_case
  title: Caparo Industries plc v Dickman
  title-short: Caparo
  volume: "[1990] 2"
  container-title: AC
  page: "605"
  authority: HL
- id: sutherland1985
  type: legal_case
  title: Sutherland Shire Council v Heyman
  title-short: Sutherland
  volume: "157"
  container-title: CLR
  page: "424"
  authority: HCA
  issued: 1985
- id: smith1987
  type: legal_case
  title: Smith v Littlewoods Organisation Ltd
  title-short: Smith
  volume: "[1987]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "241"
  authority: HL
- id: stovin1996
  type: legal_case
  title: Stovin v Wise
  title-short: Stovin
  volume: "[1996]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "923"
  authority: HL
- id: hill1989
  type: legal_case
  title: Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire
  title-short: Hill
  volume: "[1989]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "53"
  authority: HL
- id: michael2015
  type: legal_case
  title: Michael v Chief Constable of South Wales Police
  title-short: Michael
  authority: UKSC
  number: "2"
  issued: 2015
  volume: "[2015]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "1732"
- id: robinson2018
  type: legal_case
  title: Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police
  title-short: Robinson
  authority: UKSC
  number: "4"
  issued: 2018
  volume: "[2018]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "736"
- id: dsd2018
  type: legal_case
  title: Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis v DSD
  title-short: DSD
  authority: UKSC
  number: "11"
  issued: 2018
  volume: "[2019]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "196"
- id: poole2019
  type: legal_case
  title: N v Poole Borough Council
  title-short: Poole
  authority: UKSC
  number: "25"
  issued: 2019
  volume: "[2020]"
  container-title: AC
  page: "780"
- id: hra1998
  type: legislation
  title: Human Rights Act 1998
- id: compensation2006
  type: legislation
  title: Compensation Act 2006
- id: stapleton1995
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Stapleton, given: Jane}]
  title: "Duty of Care: Peripheral Parties and Alternative Opportunities for Deterrence"
  container-title: LQR
  volume: "111"
  page: "301"
  issued: 1995
- id: nolan2011
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Nolan, given: Donal}]
  title: The Liability of Public Authorities for Failing to Confer Benefits
  container-title: LQR
  volume: "127"
  page: "260"
  issued: 2011
- id: tofaris2016
  type: article-journal
  author: [{family: Tofaris, given: Stelios}, {family: Steel, given: Sandy}]
  title: Negligence Liability for Omissions and the Police
  container-title: CLJ
  volume: "75"
  page: "128"
  issued: 2016
- id: winfield2020
  type: book
  author: [{family: Goudkamp, given: James}, {family: Nolan, given: Donal}]
  title: Winfield and Jolowicz on Tort
  edition: 20
  publisher: Sweet & Maxwell
  issued: 2020
:::
`;

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/** '700 37.5px Open Sans' / 'italic 400 13px "Source Serif 4"' → { family, weight, style }.
 *  A string with no weight ('95.8px Young Serif', from a design text) is 400. */
function parseFont(font) {
  const m = /^(?:(italic|oblique)\s+)?(?:small-caps\s+)?(?:(\d+|bold|normal)\s+)?[\d.]+px\s+(.+)$/.exec(font.trim());
  if (!m) throw new Error(`Unexpected font string: ${font}`);
  const weight = m[2] === 'bold' ? 700 : !m[2] || m[2] === 'normal' ? 400 : Number(m[2]);
  return { family: m[3].replace(/^["']|["']$/g, ''), weight, style: m[1] ? 'italic' : 'normal' };
}

/** True when a loaded FontFace covers exactly this family, weight and style
 *  (document.fonts.check() is also true for families nobody declared). */
function hasFace(family, weight, style) {
  for (const face of document.fonts) {
    if (face.status !== 'loaded' || face.style !== style) continue;
    if (face.family.replace(/^["']|["']$/g, '') !== family) continue;
    const [low, high = low] = face.weight.split(' ').map(Number);
    if (weight >= low && weight <= high) return true;
  }
  return false;
}

/** Fontsource's id for a family: 'Source Serif 4' → 'source-serif-4'. */
function fontsourceId(family) { return family.toLowerCase().replace(/\s+/g, '-'); }

/** The weights and styles a family ships ({ weights: [400, 700], styles: ['normal', 'italic'] }), or null. */
function fontsourceMeta(family) {
  fontsourceMeta.cache ??= new Map();
  const id = fontsourceId(family);
  if (!fontsourceMeta.cache.has(id)) {
    fontsourceMeta.cache.set(id, fetch(`https://api.fontsource.org/v1/fonts/${id}`)
      .then((res) => (res.ok ? res.json() : null), () => null));
  }
  return fontsourceMeta.cache.get(id);
}

// ─── Kit · viewer v1 ── the same in every recipe · postext.dev/cookbook ───────
/** Shows the pages as facing spreads on a dark desk: the first page is a
 *  recto on its own, then verso | recto pairs, as in a bound book. Pages
 *  are painted when they scroll near the screen. */
function showPages(docs, { title, width = 460 } = {}) {
  const root = viewer(title);
  const pages = [docs].flat().flatMap((doc) =>
    doc.pages.map((page) => ({ doc, page, n: (doc.pageIndexOffset ?? 0) + page.index })));
  const spreads = [];
  let verso = null;
  for (const p of pages) {
    if (p.n % 2 === 1) { if (verso) spreads.push([verso, null]); verso = p; }
    else { spreads.push([verso, p]); verso = null; }
  }
  if (verso) spreads.push([verso, null]);
  const density = Math.min(window.devicePixelRatio || 1, 2);
  showPages.painter?.disconnect();
  const painter = new IntersectionObserver((entries) => {
    for (const { isIntersecting, target } of entries) {
      if (!isIntersecting) continue;
      painter.unobserve(target);
      const { doc, page } = target.postext;
      renderPageToCanvas(page, doc, target, { scale: (width * density) / page.width });
    }
  }, { rootMargin: '800px' });
  showPages.painter = painter;
  root.replaceChildren(...spreads.map((pair) => {
    const spread = document.createElement('div');
    spread.className = 'pt-spread';
    for (const p of pair) {
      const figure = document.createElement('figure');
      if (p) {
        const label = p.page.pageLabel || String(p.n + 1);
        const canvas = document.createElement('canvas');
        canvas.postext = p;
        canvas.style.aspectRatio = `${p.page.width} / ${p.page.height}`;
        canvas.setAttribute('role', 'img');
        canvas.setAttribute('aria-label', `Page ${label}`);
        const folio = document.createElement('figcaption');
        folio.textContent = label;
        figure.append(canvas, folio);
        painter.observe(canvas);
      } else figure.className = 'pt-blank';
      spread.append(figure);
    }
    return spread;
  }));
  kitStatus(`${pages.length} ${pages.length === 1 ? 'page' : 'pages'}`);
  document.documentElement.dataset.postext = 'ready';
  return pages.length;
}

/** The desk, the bar and the error reporting, created once. */
function viewer(title) {
  if (!document.getElementById('pt-kit')) {
    document.head.insertAdjacentHTML('beforeend', `<style id="pt-kit">
      :root { color-scheme: dark; }
      body { margin: 0; background: #0e1014; color: #b9bcc4; font: 13px/1.45 system-ui, sans-serif; }
      #pt-bar { position: sticky; top: 0; z-index: 1; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; align-items: center;
        gap: 6px 16px; padding: 10px 16px; background: rgb(14 16 20 / .92); backdrop-filter: blur(6px);
        border-bottom: 1px solid #23262d; }
      #pt-bar strong { color: #f4f1ea; font-weight: 600; }
      #pt-actions { display: flex; gap: 12px; margin-left: auto; }
      #pt-actions a, #pt-actions button { color: #d8a21a; font: inherit; background: none; border: 0; padding: 0; cursor: pointer; }
      #pages { display: grid; justify-items: center; gap: 48px; padding: 32px 16px 72px; }
      .pt-spread { display: flex; }
      .pt-spread figure { margin: 0; width: min(460px, 44vw); }
      .pt-spread canvas { display: block; width: 100%; background: #fff;
        box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgb(0 0 0 / .5), 0 22px 44px -16px rgb(0 0 0 / .8); }
      .pt-spread figure:first-child canvas { box-shadow: inset -14px 0 14px -14px rgb(0 0 0 / .18), 0 1px 2px rgb(0 0 0 / .5), 0 22px 44px -16px rgb(0 0 0 / .8); }
      .pt-spread figcaption { margin-top: 10px; text-align: center; font: 600 10px/1 system-ui, sans-serif;
        letter-spacing: .18em; text-transform: uppercase; color: #6c7079; }
      .pt-blank { visibility: hidden; }
      @media (max-width: 760px) {
        .pt-spread { flex-direction: column; gap: 32px; }
        .pt-spread figure { width: min(460px, 92vw); }
        .pt-blank { display: none; }
      }
    </style>`);
    document.body.insertAdjacentHTML('afterbegin',
      '<header id="pt-bar"><strong id="pt-title"></strong><span id="pt-status" role="status"></span><span id="pt-actions"></span></header>');
    document.getElementById('pt-title').textContent = document.title || 'Postext';
    addEventListener('error', (event) => kitFail(event.error ?? event.message));
    addEventListener('unhandledrejection', (event) => kitFail(event.reason));
  }
  if (title) document.getElementById('pt-title').textContent = title;
  return document.getElementById('pages')
    ?? document.body.appendChild(Object.assign(document.createElement('main'), { id: 'pages' }));
}

function kitStatus(text) {
  viewer();
  document.getElementById('pt-status').textContent = text;
}

function kitFail(error) {
  document.documentElement.dataset.postext = 'error';
  kitStatus(`Error: ${error?.message ?? error}`);
}

// ─── Kit · pdf v1 ── the same in every recipe that exports a PDF ──────────────
/** postext-pdf embeds TrueType bytes. Fetch the Fontsource file the screen
 *  used, snapping to a weight the family ships and falling back to upright
 *  when it has no italic: the PDF asks for every face a block could use. */
async function fontsourceProvider(family, weight, style) {
  const id = fontsourceId(family);
  const meta = await fontsourceMeta(family);
  const weights = meta?.weights?.length ? meta.weights : [400, 700];
  const w = weights.reduce((a, b) => (Math.abs(b - weight) < Math.abs(a - weight) ? b : a));
  const s = style === 'italic' && meta && !meta.styles.includes('italic') ? 'normal' : style;
  const res = await fetch(`https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/@fontsource/${id}@5/files/${id}-latin-${w}-${s}.woff2`);
  if (!res.ok) throw new Error(`Fontsource has no ${family} ${w} ${s} (${res.status})`);
  return decompressWoff2(new Uint8Array(await res.arrayBuffer()));
}

/** A "Build the PDF" button in the bar. Once built: "Open the PDF" (a new
 *  tab, since CodePen's preview frame cannot show PDFs) and a download link. */
function offerPdf(makePdf, filename) {
  viewer();
  const button = Object.assign(document.createElement('button'), { type: 'button', textContent: 'Build the PDF' });
  button.dataset.postextPdf = filename;
  button.addEventListener('click', async () => {
    button.disabled = true;
    button.textContent = 'Building the PDF…';
    try {
      const bytes = await makePdf();
      const url = URL.createObjectURL(new Blob([bytes], { type: 'application/pdf' }));
      const size = `${Math.max(1, Math.round(bytes.length / 1024))} KB`;
      button.replaceWith(
        Object.assign(document.createElement('a'), { href: url, target: '_blank', rel: 'noopener', textContent: 'Open the PDF ↗' }),
        Object.assign(document.createElement('a'), { href: url, download: filename, textContent: `Download ${filename} · ${size}` }));
    } catch (error) {
      button.disabled = false;
      button.textContent = 'Build the PDF';
      kitFail(error);
    }
  });
  document.getElementById('pt-actions').append(button);
}

// ─── /Kit ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────